VAN    NOSTRAND'S  SCIENOE  SERIES. 


No.  1. 


50  eta. 


CHIMNEYS 

FURNACES,  FIRE-PLACES, 
STEAM  BOILERS. 


BY 


R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E. 


NEW<YOEK: 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND,  PUBLISHER, 

T.^  Murray  and  27  Warren  Street. 

1873: 


693 


VAN  NOSTRAND'S  SCIENCE  SERIES. 


No.  1.— CHIMNEYS  FOR  FURNACES,  FIRE- 
PLACES, AND  STEAM  BOILERS.  By 
R.  Armstrong,  C.  E. 

No.  2.— STEAM  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS.    By  Ze- 

RAH  COLBURN. 

No.  3.— PRACTICAL  DESIGNING  OF  RETAIN- 
ING WALLS.   By  Arthur  Jacob,  A.  B, 
No.  4.— PROPORTIONS    OF    PINS    USED  IN 


FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE  LIBRARY 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Class-  Book-  Accession 

Given  by 


_   .  _  -    ,  J  USSOIR  ARCHES. 

By  Prof.  W.  E.  Cain. 
No.  13.--GASES  MET  WITH  IN  COAL  MINES. 

By  J.  J.  Atkinson. 
No.  14.— FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  MINES.    By  J.  J. 

Atkinson. 

No.  15. -SKEW  ARCHES.   By  Prop.  E.  W.  Hyde, 
C.  E.  Illustrated. 

No.  16.— a  GRAPHIC  METHOD  FOR  SOLVING 
CERTAIN  ALGEBRAICAL  EQUA- 
TIONS. By  Prof.  George  L.  Vose. 
With  Illustrations. 


VAN  NOSTRAND'S  SCIENCE  SERIES,, 

V  — — — 

No.  17.— WATER  AND  WATER  SUPPLY.  By 
Prof.  W.  IT.  Corfield,  M.  A.,  of  the 
University  College,  London. 

No.  18.— SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  UTILI- 
ZATION. By  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield, 
M.  A.,  of  the  University  College,  Lon- 
don. 

No.  19. -STRENGTH  OF  BEAMS  UNDER 
TRANSVERSE  LOADS.  By  Prof. 
W.  Allen,  Author  of  "  Theory  of 
Arches."    With  Illustrations. 

No.  20. —BRIDGE  AND  TUNNEL  CENTRES. 

By  John  B.  McMasters,  C.  E.  With 
Illustrations. 

No.  ^ I. —SAFETY  VALVES.  By  Richard  H. 
BuEL,  C.  E.    With  Illustrations. 

No.  23  — HIGH  MASONRY  DAMS.    By  John  B. 

McMasters,  C.  E.    With  Illustrations. 
No.  23,— THE  FATIGUE  OF  METALS  UNDER 
REPEATED  STRAINS,  with  vai  'ious 
Tables  of  Results  of  Experiments.  From . 
the  German  of  Prof.  Ludwig  Spangen-  * 
^  BERG.   With-a  Preface  by  S.  H.  Shreve, 
A.  M.    With  Illustrations. 
No.  24.— A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 
TEETH  OF  WHEELS,  with  the  Theo- 
ry of  the  Use  of  Robinson's  Odonto- 
ffraph.    By  S.  W.  Robinson,  Prof,  of 
Mechanical  Engineering.     Illinois  In- 
dustrial University. 
No.  25.— THEORY  AND  CALCULATIONS  OF 
CONTINUOUS  BRIDGES.    By  Mans- 
field Merriman,  C.  E.    With  Illustra- 
tions. 

PRACTICAL    TREATISE     ON  THE 
PROPERTIES     OF  CONTINUOUS 
BRIDGES.    By  Charles  Bender,  C.  E  . 
ON  BOILER  INCRUSTATION  AND 
CORROSION.   By  F.  J.  Rowan. 


No.  26.— 
No.  27.— 


CHIMNEYS 

FOR 

FURNACES,  FIRE-PLACES, 
STEAM  BOILERS. 


BY 

R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E. 


NEW  YOEK: 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND,  PUBLISHER, 
23  Murray  and  27  Warren  Stseet. 

1873. 


714, 
1873 


I 


CfflMiNEYS  FOR  FURNACES, 
FIRE-PLACES, 

AND 

STEAM  BOILERS. 


PRACTICAL  THERMODYNAMICS. 

Furnaces,  or  closed  fire-places,  wliicli  it 
is  the  main  design  of  this  essay  to  treat 
upon,  are  essentially  different  in  principle 
and  construction  to  the  ordinary  open  fire- 
places of  dwelling-houses,  as  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly different  in  their  general  scope 
and  object,  and  in  the  vast  variety  of  their 
applications ;  yet  there  is  one  thing  com- 
mon and  important  to  both,  and  that  is  the 
chimney,  or  vertical  flue,  for  the  purpose  of 
creating  a  proper  draught  of  air  through 
the  fire,  as  well  as  to  carry  off  the  smoke, 
or  other  products  of  combustion ;  and  it  is 
in  the  generally  increased  proportions  of 

SS633 


4 


this  almost  indispensable  adjunct  to  all 
furnaces  which  principally  distinguishes  the 
modern  from  the  ancient  practice  of  steam 
engineering. 

The  great  developement  of  the  manufac- 
turing system  of  this  country  during  the 
last  twenty  or  thirty  years,  and  the  erection 
of  a  larger  description  of  factories  being  re- 
quired, has  caused  more  attention  to  be 
devoted  to  the  stability  and  general  econo- 
my of  such  structures,  in  which  the  erection 
of  larger  chimneys  than  formerly  have  in 
some  degree  participated,  but  only  to  a 
trifling  extent  from  professional  architects, 
properly  so  called.  The  external  portions 
of  the  chimneys  of  dwelling-houses  have, 
no  doubt,  had  some  share  of  attention  from 
architects,  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  most  important  function  of  even  a  house 
chimney — the  creation  of  draught — has 
been  adequately  considered,  if  even  only  to 
prevent  that  greatest  of  all  nuisances,  a 
smoky  house.  In  proof  of  which,  many 
cases  might  be  cited  among  the  mansions 
of  the  nobility  and  gentry  all  over  the 
country,  as  well  as  in  town,  where  it  is  the 


5 


less  excusable.  Indeed,  the  cliimnej  flues 
of  dwelling-houses  are  too  commonly  treated 
as  mere  conduits  for  smoke,  as,  in  fact, 
they  are  frequently  termed,  and  as  such 
they  are  considered  equally  subordinate 
with  drains  and  other  conduits,  which  may 
or  may  not  be  attended  to  after  the  plan  of 
the  house  is  determined  upon,  and,  in  some 
cases,  even  after  the  house  is  partly  erected, 
instead  of  being — as  I  humbly  think  they 
ought  to  be — considered,  in  an  architectural 
sense  at  least,  of  the  highest  importance,  as 
they  are,  in  fact,  the  highest  external 
features  that  can  in  this  climate  properly 
characterize  the  well- ventilated,  well- warm- 
ed, healthy,  and  comfortable  dwellings  of  a 
rational  and  civilized  community. 

It  is  far  from  my  intention  to  write  a 
homily  on  any  branch  of  architecture  as  an 
art,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are 
few,  if  any,  subjects  of  such  useful  impor- 
tance connected  with  architecture  that  have 
been  so  much  neglected,  misdirected,  and 
misunderstood,  as  the  proper  construction 
of  chimneys  generally,  or  their  proportions 
most  suitable  to  the  various  purposes  for 


6 


which  they  are  designed.  Such  attention 
as  house  chimneys  have  hitherto  received, 
has  been  too  commonly  in  respect  of  their 
ornamental  and  decorative  character  only, 
even  to  the  extent  of  erecting  fictitious 
chimneys  where  there  are  no  flues  and  none 
wanted.  For  all  purposes  of  real  utility 
the  house-building  architect  too  often,  ap- 
parently, contents  himself  with  a  single 
step,  and  in  some  respects  scarcely  so  much, 
in  advance  of  the  hole  in  the  wall "  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  who,  however,  with  all 
their  barbarous  simplicity,  were,  at  any 
rate,  never  troubled  with  down  draughts — 
the  universal  malady  of  all  English  smoky 
dwelling-houses. 

The  labored  ornamentation  of  housetops, 
with  their  numerous  little  crooked  outlets 
for  smoke,  though  frequently  only  inlets 
for  wind  and  rain,  mis-termed  chimneys, 
have  been  the  chief  degradation  of 
modern  architectural  science.  The  art  of 
erecting  chimneys  for  steam-engines,  and 
for  similar  purposes,  has,  however,  fared 
somewhat  better,  since  all  the  more  sub- 
stantially useful  part  of  architecture,  com- 


7 


prising  nearly  the  whole  of  that  appertain- 
ing to  manufacturing  industry,  has  for 
some  time  past,  in  our  northern  counties  at 
least,  merged  into  the  province  of  the  civil 
and  mechanical  engineer,  technically  known 
in  Lancashire  as  the  factory  engineer. 

Factory  engineers,  however,  though  dif- 
fering widely  from  architects  generally  on 
many  points,  are  not  at  all  agreed  among 
themselves  as  to  the  best  form  and  con- 
struction of  a  chimney  for  attaining  the 
principal  end  in  view ;  namely,  the  best 
draught  at  the  least  expense.  In  short, 
the  problem  of  how  to  give  a  sufficient 
velocity  to  the  air  passing  through  the  fire- 
grate, with  a  given  temperature  in  the  fur- 
nace or  in  the  escaping  products,  and  at  a 
minimum  rate  of  consumption  of  the  fuel 
to  be  used,  has  scarcely  yet  received  an  ade- 
quate solution,  even  theoretically.  Practi- 
cally, the  question  has  received  many  solu- 
tions—too many,  one  may  say,  for  the 
convenience  of  ordinary  business  men — 
which  circumstance  is  one  of  the  main 
causes  that  has  rendered  the  present  work 
necessary,  as  well  as  contributing  to  some 


8 


of  its  chief  difliculties.  The  multitude  and 
diversity  of  opinions  on  this  subject  may, 
in  a  great  measure,  be  ascribed  to  the 
generally  prevailing  reliance  on  the  dicta 
of  some  few  popular  professors,  or  rather 
amateurs,  of  chemistry ;  in  which  category 
we  might  also,  perhaps  without  nauch  in- 
justice, include  a  few  so-called  scientific 
guide-books.  I  am  not  for  decrying  the 
present  inundation  of  cheap  scientific  trea- 
tises, which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  the 
times ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  think  such 
books  cannot  be  too  many  nor  too  cheap, 
when  original  or  genuine.  Such  of  them, 
however,  as  are  merely  reproductions  of 
the  last  century,  or  even  the  early  part  of 
the  present,  are  generally  to  be  deprecated. 

To  make  a  chemical  laboratory,  for  in- 
stance, as  has  sometimes  been  done,  an 
object  of  study  to  the  engineer  or  builder, 
however  scientifically  constructed  and  ar- 
ranged, unless,  indeed,  the  object  be  to 
erect  another  laboratory  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose, is,  to  say  the  least,  very  injudicious, 
and  the  fruitful  source  of  much  error  and 
prejudice  in  the  minds  of  young  men  of 


9 


scientific  aspirations.  More  particularly  is 
this  the  case  when  the  object  in  view  is  the 
arrangement  of  factories  or  works  for  other 
special  purposes ;  those  purposes  being 
mainly  for  commercial  profit,  and  not  for  the 
mere  amusement  of  amateurs,  nor  even  for 
the  professed  advancement  of  science,  which 
is  often  little  better. 

Holding  the  above  views  in  common 
with  the  factory  engineers  before  adverted 
to,  I  have  always  preferred  taking  for  pre- 
cedents the  blacksmith's  forge,  the  potter's 
kiln,  or  the  glasshouse  chimney,  rather 
than  seek  mechanical  prescriptions,  so  to 
speak,  among  the  crucibles  and  alembics  of 
our  "modern  alchemists." 

With  respect  to  ihe  fire-place  itself — the 
Furnace — to  which  a  chimney  of  some  kind 
is  but  a  necessary  though  highly  important 
accessory,  it  is  altogether  in  a  different  pre- 
dicament. The  chief  peculiarity  relating 
to  Furnaces,  is  that  .  they  have  always 
been,  and  are  necessarily,  in  the  hands,  or 
constantly  under  the  immediate  control,  of 
the  workman  himself.  To  him  they  are, 
in  a  certain  sense,  his  tools — the  tools  of  his 


10 


trade — and  for  each,  special  trade  compara- 
tively perfect,  at  least  he  thinks  so. 
Operative  workmen,  at  any  rate,  though 
reformers"  they  maybe  themselves,  sel- 
dom willingly  admit  of  any  reform  in  their 
work  tools.  On  this  point  they  are  essen- 
tially conservative  in  all  trades,  even  to  the 
cobler,  as  he  sings,  To  lose  my  awl 
'twould  break  my  heart,"  etc.  The  conse- 
quence of  this  general  feeling  is  that  we 
have  an  abundance  of  experiments  confir- 
matory, or  otherwise,  of  any  particular 
innovations  or  alterations  in  a  chimney  or 
furnace  that  affect  the  draught,  which  is 
the  only  result  a  workman  cares  about. 
If  the  alteration  turns  out  an  improvement, 
it  is  quickly,  and  alm^t  instinctively,  as  it 
were,  appreciated  ;  if  the  reverse,  or  doubt- 
ful, or  if  even  only  undecided,  it  is  as 
quickly  rejected  and  condemned.  Generally 
rather  too  quickly,  in  fact,  for  the  interest 
of  such  inventors  and  improvers  as  cannot 
afford  to  wait  for  matured  results.  Hence 
has  arisen  a  good  deal  of  that  great  diversity 
of  opinion,  not  to  say  theory,  even  among 
the  most  observant  of  mechanical  engineers 
themselves. 


11 


The  Chimney  and  Furnace  have  not  been 
sufficiently  considered  together,  or  as  one 
apparatus.  The  Forge  furnace,  the  Steam 
Boiler  furnace,  the  Baker's  Oven  furnace, 
and  the  Brick-kiln  furnace,  may  be  in- 
stanced as  four  examples  of  great  dissimi- 
larity of  purpose  ;  but  from  the  first  to  the 
fourth  consecutively,  requiring  a  gradually 
decreasing  velocity  of  draught.  The  first 
and  the  last  of  the  series,  being  instances  of 
the  two  opposite  extremes,  requiring  the 
quickest  and  the  slowest  draughts,  and 
having  in  consequence  the  highest  and  the 
lowest  temperatures.  These  two  extreme 
cases,  moreover,  have  one  peculiarity  in 
common,  which  is,  that  it  is  by  many  con- 
sidered a  difficult  matter  to  decide  in  either 
case  where  tlie  furnace  proper  ends,  and 
where  the  chimney  flue  begins.  Although 
I  shall  have  to  revert  to  this  point  more 
fully  in  the  sequel,  it  may  here  be  ob- 
served that  the  difficulty  alluded  to  may 
be  greatly  lessened  by  considering  that  the 
termination  or  *  vent  of  the  Forge  or  Air 
furnace  for  working  iron  ought  to  be  at  no 
great  distance  beyond  the  point  of  greatest 


12 

temperature  of  the  flame,  because,  in  the 
Forge,  or  Iron  furnace  especially,  it  is  the 
flame  that  "does  the  work.' ^  Whereas  in 
the  other  extreme  case  mentioned — the 
Brick-kiln — which  requires  little  or  no 
flame,  the  furnace  may  be  considered  to 
terminate  at  the  lowest  possible  temperature 
of  the  issuing  hot  air,  and  might  in  fact  do 
very  well  with  hardly  any  chimney  at  all. 
The  other  two  kinds  of  furnaces  referred 
to — the  Steam-engine  furnace  and  the 
Baker's  Oven  furnace^ — may  be  considered 
generally  in  an  intermediate  condition  to 
the  above,  or  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  stated,  more  particularly  as  respects 
strength  of  draught.  These  two  furnaces 
have  also  one  trait  in  common,  in  so  far  as 
they  both  require  regulating  while  at  work, 
and  are  capable  of  permitting  of  variations 
of  temperature  through  a  very  considerable 
range.  The  steam  boiler  furnace  admits 
of  great  delicacy  as  well — so  much  so,  as 
to  make  it,  when  supplied  with  proper  self- 
acting  dampers,  a  very  efiicient  regulator 
or  governor  to  the  steam-engine  itself.  In 
the  Oven  furnace,  the  draught  requires  to 


13 


be  sharpened  "  or  slackened,  from  time 
to  time,  by  hand,  to  suit  the  kind  of  goods 
undergoing  the  operation  of  baking. 
The  steam-engine  furnace  is  like  the  forge 
furnace,  so  far  as  it  requires  occasionally  a 
very  quick  action  for  raising  the  pressure 
of  steam  in  a  short  time,  or  otherwise,  to 
prevent  the  steam  from  going  down  by 
some  sudden  increase  of  the  load  on  the 
engine.  The  Oven  furnace  is  not  subject 
to  such  sudden  changes,  but  rather  re- 
quires a  long  continued,  persistent,  steady 
heat.  This  property  of  the  Oven  furnace  is 
mainly  caused  by  the  large  mass  of  brick- 
work with  which  it  is  commonly  constructed, 
absorbing  and  retaining  a  great  deal  of 
heat  to  begin  with. 

The  accumulation  and  retention  of  heat, 
or  of  the  power  of  heating  other  bodies,  by 
non-conducting  or  slow-conducting  sub- 
stances used  in  the  construction  of  some 
furnaces,  and  the  rapid  dissipation  and 
apparent  extinction  of  the  same,  by  metallic, 
or  good  conducting  substances,  in  connec- 
tion with  other  furnaces  so  provided,  is  per- 
haps the  most  interesting  branch  of  this  sub- 


ject.  And  as  anything  bearing  on  this 
that  may  serve  to  elucidate  the  principles 
on  which  sound  practice,  to  say  nothing  of 
theory,  must  be  sooner  or  later  established, 
this  introductory  Essay  appears  to  be  the 
proper  place  in  which  to  introduce  what  is 
either  new,  or  differently  treated  and 
usual. 

In  following  the  course  here  indicated,  I 
am  quite  aware  of  the  unmethodical  ap- 
pearance it  must  have  ;  but  I  have  always 
preferred  the  rough  and  useful,  though 
only  prospectively  recompensed  labors  of 
the  pioneer's  track,  to  the  smooth  greens- 
ward and  well-worn  walks  of  science  that 
often  lead  "'^  to  nowhere."  Satisfied  if,  in 
going  through  the  still  unexplored  fields  of 
discovery,  I  can  bring  home  but  a  few 
rough  logs  towards  the  building  up  of  the 
edifice  so  recently  founded  for  sheltering  the 
yet  young  though  promising  science  of 
Heat  and  its  relations,  now  termed  Thermo- 
dynamics. 

For  the  actual  state  and  condition  af 
much  of  existing  knowledge  on  the  subject 
of  heat,  there  is  now  no  longer  occasion  to 


15 


go  for  comparisons  back  to  the  times  of 
Bacon,  Niewton,  and  Hooke,  much  as  is  due 
to  those  illustrious  philosophers.  Nor  is 
there  any  occasion  to  consult  the  works  of 
Franklin,  Black,  Eumford,  and  others  of 
their  times,  nor  adopt  any  of  the  theories 
and  doctrines  they  promulgated.  The  opin- 
ions of  those  much  more  reliable  authori- 
ties— even  Young,  Dalton,  and  Davy — can- 
not now  be  taken  without  some  little  re- 
serve ;  but  the  experiments  of  their  distin- 
guished successors  Faraday  and  Joule,  with 
the  praisworthy  labors  of  Rankine,  Tindal, 
and  a  few  others  in  the  same  direction,  have 
more  recently  furnished  results  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  present  inquiry  which  cannot  be 
too  highly  esteemed,  and  which,  with  this 
general  acknowledgment,  I  intend  to  make 
a  free  use  of  in  the  course  of  this  work. 

There  is  no  need  to  extend  the  present 
Essay  by  any  long  dissertation  on  the 
theory  of  Chimney  draught,  neither  shall  I 
introduce  much  of  what  has  been  advanced 
by  others  on  that  subject,  but  rather  confine 
these  remarks  to  such  elementary  facts, 
principles,  and  rules,  as  are  likely  to  be 


16 


useful  to  those  practical  engineers,  builders, 
and  others,  Avhose  commercial  undertakings 
— contracts  and  other  exigencies — do  not 
generally  admit  of  long  delay,  much  study, 
or  scientific  research,  but  who,  nevertheless, 
may  wish  to  readily  avail  themselves  of  a 
few  leading  principles  and  practical  direc- 
tions, such  as  may  at  least  prevent  them 
from  getting  very  far  wrong.  By  pro- 
pounding and  exemplifying  a  series  of 
practical  examples  of  cases  that  can  be  now 
referred  to  in  actual  use,  it  is  hoped  that 
the  most  casual  reader  will  be  able  to  ac- 
company me  with  confidence  and  satisfac- 
tion through  the  rest  of  these  Essays. 

THE  STEAM-ENGINE  CHIMNEY. 

The  questions  of  most  interest  in  connec- 
tion with  large  chimneys,  and  those  usually 
the  first  asked,  after  the  important  one  of 
cost,  by  the  capitalist  who  has  determined 
on  some  considerable  outlay,  either  in 
erecting  a  new  shaft  or  rebuilding  an  old 
one,  may  be  classed  under  two  principal 
heads — namely,  the  external  and  the  inter- 
nal proportions. 


17 


Whether  the  external  form  of  a  hollow 
.shaft  of  brickwork  or  masonry  of  consider- 
able elevation,  in  this  climate  and  country, 
should  be  a  plain  obelisk,  or  a  finely  pro- 
portioned architectural  column,  is  a  ques- 
tion that  does  not  admit  of  much  difficulty 
in  deciding.  Most  engineers  are  no  doubt 
properly  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  for  so 
entirely  utiUtarian  a  purpose  as  a  chimney, 
the  former  is  the  most  preferable.  It  is, 
however,  quite  a  matter  of  architectural 
taste  as  to  how  it  may  harmonize  with 
surrounding  objects,  and  the  last  thing  in 
the  world,  perhaps,  that  engineers  ought  to 
dogmatize  upon.  Whether  the  form  of 
such  a  column  should  affect  great  sim- 
plicity— a  simple  truncated  cone  or  pyra- 
mid, for  instance,  decreasing  uniformly  in 
diameter  upwards;  or  whether  it  should 
affect  great  stabiHty,  like  the  trunk  of  the 
oak,  proverbially  the  shape  for  withstand- 
ing a  severe  gale  of  wind ;  or,  ought  a 
chimney  shaft  to  be  erected  with  a  variable 
batter,  like  a  lighthouse  or  a  monument  on 
the  sea-coast — these  are  all  questions  re- 
quiring some  consideration  in  designing  a 


18 


chimney  for  general  purposes  ;  but  for  the 
chimney  of  a  steam-engine  other  especial 
requirements  of  far  greater  importance  are 
to  be  considered. 

It  is  the  internal  proportions  of  a  chim- 
ney shaft  only — its  height  and  sectional 
area — that  principally  concern  the  steam 
engineer.  Until  these  essential  internal 
proportions  are  first  agreed  upon,  we  are 
not  in  a  position  to  discuss  the  external 
proportions  with  advantage. 

In  fixing  on  the  proper  dimensions  of 
the  vertical  smoke  flue,  or  inside  of  a 
steam-engine  chimney,  it  is  a  question 
with  many,  whether  it  should,  as  is  most 
commonly  done,  be  tapered  internally  or 
diminished  in  area  towards  the  top ;  or 
whether  it  ought  to  be  parallel — as  wide  at 
top  as  at  bottom — in  order  to  have  the 
greatest  velocity  of  draught.  Or,  again 
ought  a  chimney  to  be,  as  some  few  eccentric 
engineers  contend,  and  occasionally  carry 
into  execution,  even  wider  at  the  top  than 
the  bottom? 

These  questions  are  all  deserving  of  atten- 
tive consideration,  and  will  receive  ample 


19 


illustration  in  the  sequel.  But  there  is  an- 
other question  quite  as  important  as  any  of 
the  above,  and  requiring  a  prior  considera- 
tion. It  is  thus  enunciated  :  What  are  the 
proper  dimensions — height  and  area — ^of  a 
chimney  shaft  most  suitable  for  a  steam- 
engine  of  any  given  number  of  horse-power, 
or,  which  is  nearly  the  same  thing,  for  burn- 
ing away  a  given  quantity  of  coals  per 
hour  ?  The  proper  answer  to  this  question 
depends  a  good  deal  on  the  quality  of  the 
coals  used,  and  the  quantity  of  waste 
gaseous  products  arising  from  their  gener- 
ally imperfect  combustion  in  the  furnace. 
The  best  Newcastle  or  Hartley  coals,  and 
the  best  Welsh  steam  coal,  though  re- 
quiring very  different  treatment  in  the  fur- 
nace, are  found  equally  in  practice  not  to 
require  such  large  chimneys  as  the  inferior 
coals  of  the  midland  and  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts of  England.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, it  will  perhaps  be  most  advisable, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  base  our  observa- 
tions and  calculations  on  such  practical  data 
as  those  districts  so  readily  afford,  more 
particularly  those    of  Lancashire,  South 


20 


Yorkshire,  Derbyshire,  and  Staffordshire. 
Another  reason  for  adopting  those  data  is, 
that  the  usual  stoking  and  management  of 
the  fires  in  those  districts  may  be  described 
as  a  fair  medium  between  the  north  and 
the  south,  between  the  Newcastle  and  the 
Cornish  practice.  There  is  one  feature  in 
common  between  the  northern  and  southern 
practice  that  may  be  mentioned,  which 
is,  that  the  engines  in  both  districts  are 
generally  very  lightly  loaded,  compared 
with  those  in  the  manufacturing  districts ; 
the  latter  being  very  seldom  indeed  work- 
ing at  less  than  50  per  cent,  above  their 
nominal  horse-power,  and  commonly  more 
than  double  their  real  or  indicated  horse- 
power. 

The  last-mentioned  circumstance  furnishes 
us  with  the  reason  for  the  maxim  so  long 
prevalent  in  Lancashire,  that  a  steam- 
engine  chimney,  leaving  all  considerations 
of  cost  out  of  the  question,  can  never  be  too 
large  nor  too  powerful,  provided  it  is  sup- 
plied with  efficient  means  for  checking  the 
draught,  by  properly  fitted  dampers  or 
otherwise,  whereby  the  supply  of  steam 


21 


can  be  readily  controlled  at  any  moment,  so 
as  to  work  the  engine  at  one-half  its  full 
power,  and  using  considerably  less  than 
one-half  the  power  of  draught  of  the  chim- 
ney ;  for  which  purpose,  the  ordinary 
damper  (say  3  ft.  long)  of  a  thirty-horse 
engine  ought  to  be  open  only  to  the  extent 
of  3  to  6  in.,  thus  having  a  surplus  draught 
always  at  command  for  emergencies. 

Another  feature  of  this  question,  arising 
from  the  practice  of  working  steam-engines 
with  inferior  fuel,  is  the  large  proportion  of 
dirt  and  small  ashes  derived  from  the  burn- 
ing of  the  bad  coal — the  ^'  flue  dust  " — 
which  accumulates  to  an  enormous  extent 
within  the  flues  and  on  the  bottom  of  the 
chimney.  Much  of  this  flue  dust — all  the 
finer  particles  especially,  and  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  has  hitherto  been  sus- 
pected, or  at  least  recognized — passes  up 
and  out  of  the  chimney  top  under  the  ap- 
pearance of  smoke,  but  which  even  veteran 

smoke  burners  "  generally  are  surprised 
to  find  is  neither  carbonaceous  soot  nor 
combustible  gas,  but  principally  incombus- 
tible earthy  and  silicious  dust. 


22 


In  appealing  to  the  practice  of  our  best 
^engineers  respecting  the  proper  area  of  the 
vertical  chimney  flue  of  a  steam-engine, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  go  back  to  the  times 
of  Brindley  and  Smeaton — when  steam- 
engines  were  called  fire-engines,  and  the 
firemen  first  called  stokers — excepting  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  single  reference  to 
the  early  practice  of  the  celebrated  James 
Watt,  which  strikingly  illustrates,  not  only 
the  difficulty  of  determining  a  priori  the 
right  proportions  of  a  chimney,  but  also 
the  admirable  caution  and  prudence  observ- 
ed by  him  in  this  as  in  other  matters,  so 
remarkably  conspicuous  in  the  eminently 
practical  mind  of  that  great  man. 

After  Mr.  Watt  had  once  ascertained 
the  best  size  and  proportions  of  a  chimney 
most  suitable  for  a  given  size  of  boiler  and 
engine,  he  did  not,  a];  first,  as  almost  any 
tyro  of  the  present  day  would  not  hesitate 
to  do — venture  to  throw  the  draught  of  two 
such  or  similar  boilers  into  one  chimney  of  a 
larger  area,  so  that  the  same  outlet  might 
serve  for  the  smoke  from  both  furnaces,  but 
he  actually  erected   two   such  chimneys 


23 


alongside  each  other  !  Or,  occasionally,  he 
did  what  was  equivalent  thereto  :  in  erect- 
ing a  chimney  for  two  boilers,  he  would 
build  up  a  midfeather,  or  division  wall,  from 
bottom  to  top,  in  order  to  separate  the-  two 
draught  currents  from  each  other,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  house  chimneys.  Had 
we  not  the  evidence  of  yet  existing  erections 
to  the  fact,  such  a  statement  at  this  distance 
of  time  might  be  considered  scarcely^ 
credible.* 

From  all  accounts  of  Mr.  Watt's  early 
practice,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  he 
did  not  theorize  much  respecting  the  height 
of  engine  chimneys  ;  for  having  succeeded 
in  doubling  the  effect  of  the  steam-engine 
itself,  for  the  same  amount  of  fuel  pre- 
viously used,  he  found   no  difficulty  in 


*  Two  united  chimneys  of  this  kind  were,  not  many  yearg 
ago,  in  use,  with  two  of  Boulton  and  Watt's  original  20  horse 
boilers,  in  the  cotton-spinning  works  of  Messrs.  John  Pooley 
&  Sons,  in  Manchester.  The  case  was  remarkable,  from  the 
fact  that  the  engineer  of  the  firm  once  attempted  to  improve 
(as  he  thought)  the  draught  of  the  chimney  by  breaking  an 
opening  through  the  midfeather,  in  order  that  the  smoke 
might  fill  both  the  flues.  The  result  was,  the  draught  was  en- 
tirely lost,  and  the  communication  had  to  be  closed  up  again, 
before  the  engine  could  be  got  to  work. 


24 


making  a  low  chimiiey  suffice,  such  in  fact, 
as  were  then  in  use  for  the  old  atmos- 
pheric engines,  and  occasionally  to  be  seen 
in  the  mining  districts  at  the  present  time. 
Those  primitive  erections,  however — mere 
outlets  for  smoke — can  now  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  chimneys  at  all,  seldom  exceed- 
ing an  elevation  of  two  or  three  yards 
higher  than  the  top  of  the  boiler.  So  soon, 
however,  as  the  double  powered  steam- 
engine  came  into  use,  which  quadrupled  in 
effect  the  "  old  atmospheric,'^  and  often  ex- 
ceeded that,  when  applied  to  turning  machin- 
ery in  towns,  it  was  found  that  the  speed  of  the 
engine  was  often  reduced  for  want  of  steam, 
and  that  again  for  want  of  sufficient  draught. 
This  last  was  occasioned,  not  unfrequently, 
strange  as  the  words  may  now  sound  in  the 
ears  of  modern  engine  drivers,  by  an  "  un- 
favorable wind  I " 

Prior  to  the  times  we  are  speaking  of, 
the  height  of  an  engine  chimney  shaft,  or 
stack  of  chimneys,  as  on  Mr.  Watt's  system 
the  chimney  was,  in  fact,  did  not  then  ap- 
pear to  be  of  much  consequence,  provided 
it  exceeded  that  of  the  neighboring  build- 


25 


ings,  and  any  precedents  tliat  then  existed 
for  the  area  of  the  aperture  or  exit  passage 
of  the  smoke  were  Uke  those  for  the  height 
— of  a  very  antiquated  and  empirical 
character.  The  size  and  shape  of  the 
superior  orifice  of  a  chimney  was,  in  fact, 
even  within  the  present  century,  regulated 
by  no  fixed  rule,  but  was  variously  modi- 
fied, as  well  also  in  diameter  and  area, 
from  accidental  circumstances — often  by 
considerations  as  to  what  could  be  made 
safely  to  stand,  should  the  chimney  require 
raising  a  little  higher  than  usual,  or  than 
first  intended.  The  numerous  envious 
rivals  of  Boulton  and  Watt  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  the  Sherratts, 
Murrays,  and  others  of  that  time,  whose 
almost  universal  rule  was  to  give  "  one 
inch  more  in  diameter  of  cylinder  than 
Watt "  for  the  same  nominal  horse-power, 
and  for  a  great  deal  less  money,''  had  no 
little  share  in  helping  to  mend  this  state  of 
things.  They  all  knew  pretty  well  how  im- 
portant it  was  to  have  a  little  extra  steam, 
to  meet  the  possible  imperfect  performances 
of  their  engines,  and  this  a  very  few  inches 


26 


or  feet  of  extra  brickwork  in  the  width  and 
height  of  the  chimney  always  gave  them 
the  command  of,  though  this  was  often 
done  at  the  casual  suggestion  of  the  brick- 
layer. In  this  matter,  as  with  a  cor- 
responding suggestion  of  raising  the  height 
of  the  feed-pipes,  which  was  often  com- 
plied with  professedly  to  suit  the  con- 
venience of  the  stoker  in  preventing  boiling 
over,  it  generally  resulted  in  raising  the 
pressure  of  the  steam — an  infallible  remedy 
for  almost  all  other  deficiencies.  Thus  it 
occasionally  happened  that  the  trifling  or 
crude  suggestion  of  the  bricklayer  or 
stoker,  in  some  instances,  turned  favorably 
the  tide  of  success,  which  first  founded  tho 
establishment  of  some  of  the  largest  engi- 
neering firms. 

It  is  owing  to  similar  circumstances  to 
those  just  referred  to  that  we  have  so 
many  examples  of  engine  and  other  chim- 
neys in  most  of  our  old  provincial  towns, 
which,  on  being  raised  higher  than  at  first 
intended,  have  been  stayed  from  time  to 
time  by  means  of  iron  tie-rods,  and  hoop- 
ed with  iron  bands.   These  iron  rods,  props^. 


27 


and  crutches  to  chimneys  are  much  re- 
sorted to  in  bi^eweries,  distilleries,  malt 
kilns,  and  other  large  works,  as  well 
in  London  as  in  different  parts  of  the 
south  of  England,  and  are  very  far  from 
being  any  indication  of  want  of  great  pros- 
perity in  the  commercial  and  manufac- 
turing concerns  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. In  their  apparent  condition  they 
are  the  very  opposite  to  the  establish- 
ments of  even  second-rate  manufacturers 
in  Lancashire. 

So  far  as  economy  of  fuel  is  concerned, 
the  great  prosperity  and  wealth  of  the  for- 
mer seems  to  be  in  defiance  of  extravagant 
waste  and  temporary  expedients ;  while  in 
the  latter  it  arises  in  a  great  measure  from 
well-considered  permanent  arrangements  in 
all  that  concerns  their  engines,  boilers,  and 
furnaces.  The  necessity  of  artificial  helps 
to  the  stability  of  a  chimney  is  a  sure  mani- 
festation of  great  waste  of  fuel,  by  unneces- 
sary stoking  and  forcing  the  fires,  and 
thereby  overheating  the  chimneys,  through 
inadequate  area  of  flue.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  may  instance  the  air  furnaces  and  kilns 


28 


of  the  iron  works  and  potteries  of  Stafford- 
shire, where  there  is  some  degree  of  neces- 
sity for  resorting  to  the  expedients  referred 
to,  on  account  of  the  much  higher  tempera- 
ture required  by  the  process  going  on  with- 
in the  furnace. 

The  chimney,  or  cone,  of  an  iron  furnace, 
an  earthenware  kiln,  or  a  glasshouse,  is,  in 
fact,  a  part  of  the  furnace  itself,  or  at  least 
ought  to  be  so  considered,  and  necessarily 
becomes  heated  by  the  flame  passing  into, 
through,  or  among  the  materials  and  arti- 
cles of  manufacture  it  contains.  This  pecu- 
liarity, which  is  also  common  to  many  vari- 
eties of  chemical  furnaces  as  well  as  to  pot- 
tery kilns,  is  the  main  cause  of  the  very 
strong  draught  therein  obtained. 

'  In  the  case  of  a  steam  engine  boiler  fur- 
nace, however,  it  is  well  known  that  no 
such  thing  as  the  flame  passing  off  into  the 
chimney,  nor  even  into  a  flue  leading 
thereto,  after  leaving  the  bottom  or  internal 
tube  of  the  boiler,  is  admissible  with  the 
slightest  attention  to  economy  of  fuel.  It 
requires  but  little  consideration  to  convince 
us  that  the  flame  of  a  steam-engine  furnace 


29 


ought  to  be  wbolly  expended  against  the 
boiler  bottom,  or,  where  internal  furnaces 
or  flues  are  used,  entirely  witliin  the  boiler 
itself,  in  Avhich  case  the  draught  is  created 
solely  by  the  ascensional  force  of  the  column 
of  waste  air  or  smoke  within  the  chimney, 
heated  to  the  comparatively  moderate 
temperature  of  500  or  600  deg. 

Thus  it  will  be  observed,  there  is  a  wide 
distinction  to  be  made  between  these  two 
species  of  furnaces  ;  the  steam-engine  fur- 
nace approaching  more  nearly,  in  its 
moderate  temperature,  economy,  and  other 
circumstances,  to  the  enclosed  house  stove, 
or  at  least  to  the  kitchen  fire-place,  or  cook- 
ing range.  In  these,  the  grate-room  or 
furnace  proper,  and  the  chimney  or  smoke 
flue,  are  essentially  separate  and  distinct 
parts,  though  in  the  best  construction  of 
engine  furnaces  they  are  rendered  more 
perfectly  so  by  interposing  what  has  been 
always  considered  and  properly  termed  the 
flame  chamber,  or  flame  bed,*  by  practical 
engineers. 


*  Several  other  more  or  less  affectp.d  terms  are  applied  to 
this  part  of  a  furnace  by  the  ultra-chemical  school  of  smoke- 


30 


On  the  other  hand,  in  the  action  of  the 
air  furnaces  of  a  potter's  kiln,  in  which  the 
vertical  flame  chamber  and  chimney  are 
both  in  one,  or  in  the  small  furnaces  of  a 
chemist's  laboratory,  arranged  for  produc- 
ing very  perfect  combustion  and  the  most 
intense  heats  only,  of  two  or  three  thousand 
degrees  and  upwards,  we  find  a  very  differ- 
ent state  of  things  to  that  of  a  steam  boiler, 
requiring  a  heat  only  a  little  beyond  that 
of  boiling  water. 

The  importance  of  the  distinctions  we 
have  thus  endeavored — though  perhaps 
imperfectly — to  point  out,  though  well  un- 
derstood by  practical  firemen,  has  been 
much  underrated,  and  the  cause  of  some 
dogmatism  and  misapprehension,  especially 
on  the  smoke  question.  From  this  mixing- 
up  of  different  species  of  furnaces,  intended 
for  totally  different  objects  and  processes  of 
art,  though  each  may  be  practically  perfect 
for  the  purpose  it  is  intended  for,  very  in- 


prevention  patentees;  such  as  mixing  chamber  and  diffusing 
chamber,  of  which  the  term  combustion  chamber  is  perhaps 
the  least  inappropriate,  although,  in  reality,  combustion  goes 
on  "more  vigorously  in  the  grate-room  than  anywhere  else. 


3i 


correct  conclusions  only  have  been  deduced 
by  some  scientific  writers.  Waiving,  there- 
fore, for  the  present  any  further  considera- 
tion in  this  place  of  the  variable  opinions 
of  those  chemists  who  have  not  yet  been 
tible  to  define  satisfactorily  where  the 
steam-engine  or  other  furnace  (proper)  ends, 
or  where  the  chimney  flue  begins, — and 
dismissing  also  the  calculations  of  those 
really  able  mathematicians  on  the  subject 
of  the  velocity  of  draught,  whose  con- 
clusions on  the  question  have,  unfor- 
tunately, differed  from  each  other  by  nearly 
500  per  cent.,  we  shall  next  proceed  to  de- 
scribe the  design  for  a  steam-engine  chim- 
ney, hastily  iuprovised  for  a  particular  occa- 
sion, and  which,  on  being  properly  ex- 
ecuted, happened  to  be  right.  We  use 
this  expression  purposely,  not  wishing  to 
claim  any  particular  merit  for  the  design 
itself,  and  do  not  say  how  many  others  we 
may  have  taken  more  pains  with,  that, 
from  various  causes,  have  turned  out  less 
successful,  although  as  instructive  lessons, 
some  such  may  be  referred  to  in  the 
sequel. 


82 


In  order  to  elucidate  tlie  object  of  this 
chapter  still  further,  and  to  show  what 
confused  and  erroneous  notions  on  the  sub- 
ject of  draught  in  chimneys  have  been, 
from  time  to  time,  prevalent,  even  in  so 
generally  intelligent  and  eminently  manu-  * 
facturing  a  town  as  Manchester,  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  a  letter  addressed  to 
one  of  the  newspapers  in  that  city  is  in- 
serted, together  with  my  reply  thereto. 
The  article  was  entitled  Smoke  and  Long 
Chimneys,"  and  commenced  as  follows  : — 

The  writer  proposes  that,  instead  of 
erecting  a  long  chimney  for  a  steam-engine 
furnace,  a  very  long  and  wide  flue  or 
■chamber  should  be  built,  contiguous  to  the 
furnace.  Take  an  area  of  ten  yards  by 
twenty,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  furnace,  wall  it  round  10  ft.  high, 
;and  build  three  or  four  crosswalls,  3  ft. 
short  of  the  length  of  the  chamber,  each 
alternately,  the  alternate  end  of  each  wall 
being  tied  into  the  outer  walls,  arching  the 
whole  over  from  wall  to  wall,  or  covering  it 
with  flags  (any  more  convenient  form  might 
he  adopted,  provided  the  length  and  height 


33 


of  the  fliie  was  obtained) — the  smoke  and 
rarefied  air  from  the  furnace  to  be  conveyed 
by  an  ordinary-sized  flue  into  it  at  one  cor- 
ner, passing  through  it  zigzag  to  the  end^ 
and  then  up  the  chimney,  which  need  not 
be  higher  than  the  buildings  around.  There 
should  be  a  door  into  it,  at  some  convenient 
place,  to  take  out  the  soot ;  and  at  the  first 
time  it  was  started  it  would  be  necessary  to 
put  in  a  quantity  of  shavings  and  light 
them,  in  order  to  start  the  draught ;  this 
would  only  be  required  when  it  was  first 
commenced  with,  or  after  it  had  been  a  long 
time  out  of  use. 

The  writer  conceives  that,  when  the  flue 
is  filled  with  the  smoke  and  rarefied  air 
from  the  furnace,  there  would  be  a  partial 
— and  but  a  partial — vacuum  in  the  flue,  or 
that  the  volume  of  air  in  it  would  not  be  of 
equal  density  with  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere, and  that  the  difference  in  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  smoke  and  hot  air  in  the 
whole  flue,  and  the  like  quantity  of  atmos- 
phere, would  be  so  great  that  the  air  would 
rush  through  the  furnace  with  great  force 
to  efi'ect  an  equilibrium,  thereby  creating  an 


34 


intense  dranglit — the  great  desideratum  in 
building  long  chimneys,  which  is  prevented 
taking  place  (the  equilibrium)  by  its  being 
rarefied  by  combustion  in  passing  through 
the  furnace. 

Suppose,  after  the  flue  was  filled  with 
smoke  and  rarefied  air,  the  communication 
from  the  furnace  was  cut  off  by  a  damper, 
and  another  one  opened  for  the  atmosphere 
to  pass  into  the  flue,  would  there  not  be  a 
very  strong  draught  into  it,  intense  at  first, 
and  progressively  diminishing  till  an  equi- 
librium was  effected  ?  The  malt  kiln  has 
large  flues  or  chambers  under  the  perforat- 
ed tiles,  into  which  the  hot  air  generated  in 
the  fire  passes,  and,  without  the  aid  of  any 
chimney,  has  a  strong  draught. 

"  The  baker's  oven,  when  heated  by  a 
fire  in  what  they  designate  a  wagon,  has  a 
very  strong  draught,  entirely  owing  to  the 
space  the  smoke  and  hot  air  has  to  spread 
in,  before  passing  to  the  chimney.  The 
same  oven,  when  heated  by  a  fire  spread  on 
the  bottom  in  the  common  way,  has  a  very 
poor  draught,  the  oven  being  converted  into 
a  fire-place  without  any  hot-air  chambers 


35 


or  large  horizontal  flue.  The  reason  why 
the  wagon  plan  is  not  in  more  general  use, 
is  owing  to  the  wagon  being  so  soon  burnt 
out,  arising  from  the  strong  draught.  It  is 
an  almost  universally  received  opinion  that 
horizontal  flues  check  a  draught ;  but  this, 
I  conceive,  arises  from  their  being  generally 
made  of  the  same  size  as  the  flue  of  the 
chimney. 

Have  not  some  of  the  recent  builders  of 
long  chimneys,  to  supersede  several  smaller 
ones,  planted  them  at  some  distance  from 
their  furnaces,  and  made  a  horizontal  flue 
to  carry  all  their  draughts  to  the  chimney  ? 
and  when  they  have  turned  the  first  draught 
into  it  they  have  had  a  very  strong  one ; 
but  as  they  have  added  the  others,  the 
draught  has  progressively  diminished.  The 
width  of  the  large  chimney  is  made  too  large 
for  one  draught,  consequently  the  atmos- 
phere would  descend  the  chimney  and  create 
a  down-draught,  diminishing  the  advantage 
of  its  height  for  one  draught ;  but,  as  the 
rest  of  the  draughts  were  put  in,  the  down- 
draught  would  be  less  and  less,'and]when  all 
were  put  in,  the  smoke  and  hot  air  would 


36 


fill  the  chimney  to  the  top,  having  the 
whole  benefit  which  its  elevation  is  supposed 
to  give, — demonstrating,  as  I  conceive,  that 
the  horizontal  flue,  which  was  constructed 
wide  for  several  flues  to  run  into,  is  the 
occasion  of  the  superior  draught,  when  only 
one  was  put  in,  and  not  the  long  chimney. 

^*As  respects  the  smoke  when  it  is  pass- 
ing through  the  proposed  flue,  from  the 
great  space  it  has  to  pass  in,  it 
moves  slowly  along,  though  the  draught  is 
quick.  From  this  circumstance,  and  the 
rarefaction  of  the  air  in  it,  he  conceives  it 
will  have  time  to  condense  and  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  flue  before  it  arrives  at  the 
chimney.  But  to  render  this  desirable  ob-^ 
ject  more  complete,  he  thinks  that  if  the 
condensing  water  from  the  engine  was  in- 
troduced by  a  siphon  pipe  into  the  flue 
next  to  the  furnace,  and  passed  along  its 
whole  length  in  a  gutter,  and  taken  out 
near  the  chimney  by  another  siphon  pipe, 
the  steam  that  would  arise  from  tne 
water  would  partly  be  absorbed  by  the 
floating  particles  of  soot,  and  sooner  fall  to 
the  bottom. 


^'  The  writer,  some  time  ago,  erected  a 
flue,  or  chambers,  similar  to  what  he  has 
described,  to  destroy  coal  tar.  He  set  fire 
to  a  quantity  of  shavings  in  the  flue,  and 
then  lighted  the  coal  tar  in  the  fire-place, 
calculating  that  it  would  burn  slowly,  and 
that  the  soot  would  all  be  deposited  at  the 
bottom  of  the  flue.  When  ignited,  it 
blazed  most  furiously,  and  passed  through 
the  small  into  the  large  flue  with  such 
rapidity,  owing  to  the  intense  draught,  and 
the  flame  was  carried  such  a  distance  in, 
that  the  chamber  would  soon  have  been 
destroyed,  being  covered  with  flags,  that  he 
had  it  put  out  as  expeditiously  as  possible. 
He  then  had  small  low  arches  built  over 
the  fire-place,  leaving  out  a  brick  here  and 
there,  by  which  means  he  checked  the 
draught,  which  was  still  sufficiently  strong 
for  the  purpose,  and  not  a  particle  of  soot 
issued  from  the  chimney,  all  being  de- 
posited at  the  bottom  of  the  flue.  The 
chimney,  if  it  could  be  so  called,  was  not 
more  than  eighteen  inches  high,  and  not 
more  than  three  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
flue  from  the  fire-place. 

(Signed)        "A  Co^'3TANT  Eeader.'^ 


38 


The  writer  of  the  foregoing  letter  was  a 
well-known  engineer  in  Manchester,  and  at 
the  time  of  its  publication,  his  opinions  on 
the  subject  treated  on,  were  highly  valued 
by  several  of  the  manufacturers,  who 
placed  the  matter  in  my  hands  for  the  pur- 
pose of  investigation,  and  the  result  was 
the  following  letter  addressed  to  the  editor 
of  the  same  paper : — 

"  The  proposal  of  your  correspondent  for 
attaching  long  horizontal  flues  or  chambers 
to  steam-engine  furnaces,  if  carried  into 
effect,  so  far  from  serving  as  a  substitute 
for  long  chimneys,  would  render  them 
more  than  ever  necessary.  Nothing  can 
be  better  established  among  practical  men 
conversant  with  the  subject  than  the  fact, 
that  every  interruption  or  bend  in  the  flue 
of  a  furnace,  acts  as  a  check  to  the  draught, 
and  where  such  checks  or  interruptions 
occur,  there  is  generally  found  a  deposit  of 
Boot  or  dust,  which  otherwise  would  have 
found  its  way  through  the  flue  and  out  at 
the  chimney  top. 

*^With  respect  to  the  strong  draughts 
generally  obtained  at  a  malt-kiln  or  a  ba- 


39 


ker's  oven,  very  little  consideration  is  re- 
quired to  see  that  the  draught  in  such  cases 
depends  upon  quite  a  different  principle  to 
that  of  a  steam-engine  furnace.  In  those, 
the  draught  is,  in  great  part,  owing  to  the 
great  mass  of  brickwork  and  other  materi- 
als (generally  substances  that  retain  heat  a 
long  time)  used  in  their  construction,  be- 
coming heated  to  a  considerable  degree  at 
the  commencement,  and  from  which,  by  the 
nature  of  the  operations  carried  on,  the  heat 
is  but  slowly  abstracted.  Hence  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  current  of  air  passing  through  the 
furnace  is  accelerated  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  flues,  or  area  of  heated  sur- 
face, and  a  very  small  chimney  is  therefore 
sufficient.  Whereas,  in  the  case  of  a  steam 
engine  boiler,  things  are  very  different,  for 
here  we  have  the  fire  generally  surrounded 
by  an  extensive  surface  of  iron  plate,  kept 
comparatively  cool  by  the  contained  water 
rapidly  abstracting  the  heat  in  the  genera- 
tion of  steam.  And,  in  order  that  this  ab- 
straction of  the  heat  by  the  water  should  be 
as  complete  as  possible,  before  the  smoke  is 
allowed  to  pass  off  into  the  chimney,  num- 


40 


berless  contrivances  have  been  resorted  to; 
as  is  exemplified  in  the  multiflue  boiler  of 
Messrs.  Booth  and  Stephenson,  to  the  appli- 
cation of  which  to  locomotive  purposes,  we 
are  undoubtedly  indebted  for  the  only  effi- 
cient system  of  economical  travelling  by 
railway. 

You  must  easily  perceive,  that  with  any 
regard  to  economy  especially,  how  impor- 
tant it  is  in  the  generation  of  steam,  that 
the  smoke  should  leave  the  boiler  at  a  com- 
paratively low  temperature ;  and  if  so,  its 
tendency  to  ascend  must  be  very  small; 
particularly  when  you  recollect  that  carbon- 
ic acid,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  prod- 
ucts of  the  combustion  of  coal,  is  considera- 
bly heavier  than  atmospheric  air  of  the 
same  temperature.  Hence  exists  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  assisting  the  draught  by 
the  superior  levity  of  a  column  of  heated 
air,  as  compared  to  that  of  a  similar  column 
of  the  external  atmosphere,  the  pressure  of 
which,  by  a  well-known  hydrostatical  law, 
is  in  a  certain  direct  ratio  to  its  perpendicu- 
lar height,  and  is  quite  independent  of  its 
other  dimensions. 


41 


"  It  requires  no  theoretical  elucidation, 
and  very  little  scientific  knowledge,  to  un- 
derstand the  great  diifference  there  is  in 
principle  between  the  firing  of  a  steam-en- 
gine boiler  and  the  heating  of  a  baker's 
oven.  Ahnost  any  one,  I  should  think, 
who  pays  common  attention  to  such  sub- 
jects must  be  aware  of  it ;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  a  gas  retort  furnace,  or  of  a 
brick-kiln.  In  these  it  is  the  mass  of  non- 
conducting matter  heated,  and  the  slow  ab- 
straction of  this  heat,  leaving  a  large  sur- 
plus to  pass  up  the  chimney,  which  is  the 
principal  cause  of  draught.  On  the  con- 
trary, in  the  furnace  of  a  steam-engine 
boiler,  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  heat- 
ing surface  (but  as  regards  its  effects  on 
the  draught  it  may  more  properly  be  called 
cooling  surface),  composed  of  the  best  con- 
ducting substance,  is,  or  ought  to  be,  ex- 
posed to  the  current  of  hot  air ;  consequent- 
ly the  main  flues  and  chimneys  of  such  fur- 
naces are  nearly  as  cool  as  the  external  at- 
mosphere. Therefore,  unless  an  artificial 
blast  is  used,  as  in  the  locomotives  and 
some   other    high-pressure    engines,  the 


42 


adoption  of  long  chimneys  is  altogether  un- 
avoidable. 

"If  manufacturers  who  employ  steam- 
engines  were  at  all  likely  to  be  induced  to 
increase  so  important  an  item  of  their  ex- 
penditure as  that  of  fuel,  for  the  mere  pur- 
pose of  heating  their  chimneys — which  is 
evidently  the  principle  of  your  correspond- 
ent's scheme — it  might  be  worth  while 
showing  him  that  the  great  desideratum  of 
smoke  burning  would  thereby  be  rendered 
more  difficult  of  attainment  than  ever.  Of 
this,  indeed  any  one  who  admits  the  facts, 
which  all  must  do — that  for  burning  or  pre- 
venting smoke  we  require  an  increased  heat 
of  the  fire,  and  for  increasing  the  heat  of 
the  fire  we  require  an  increased  draught 
through  the  fire,  rather  than  through  the 
flue — it  is  only  necessary  to  observe  what 
takes  place  when  a  chimney  is  on  fire,  to  be 
convinced  of  what  I  now  state.  In  such 
case  the  draught  is  all  in  the  flue  instead  of 
the  fire-place,  where  it  ought  to  be ;  and, 
of  course,  the  heat  is  then  all  at  the  wrong 
end  of  the  chimney. 

"  That  checkiug'the  draught  of  a  furnace 


43 

by  brickwork  or  other  obstructions  in  the 
flues,  may  be  termed  a  preventive  of 
smoke,  is  admitted — partly  by  causing  a 
deposit  of  Buot  in  the  flues,  but  principally 
from  the  smoke  not  being  so  rapidly  gene- 
rated. In  the  latter  particular  it  bears 
some  resemblance  to  many  other  plans 
strongly  recommended  in  your  and  other 
papers  for  years  past,  as  I  have  no  doubt 
many  other  similar  plans  will,  for  good  and 
substantial  reasons,  independent  of  their 
merits  or  demerits,  continue  to  be  recom- 
mended for  years  to  come.  The  principle 
of  all  the  plans  we  are  alluding  to  is  the 
same,  and  equivalent  to  the  notable  expe- 
dient of  keeping  the  furnace-door  open 
until  the  fire  ceases  to  smoke.  In  other 
words,  they  amount,  in  the  generality  of 
cases,  to  a  complete  conversion  of  the  fur- 
nace, for  a  time,  to  the  condition  of  a  com- 
mon open  house-fire.  Of  course,  under  such 
circumstances,  the  prevention  of  much  smoke 
becomes  a  very  easy  matter,  for  very  little  is 
generated ;  and  owing  to  the  same  circum- 
stances, I  must  also  add,  very  little  steam ! 
(Signed) 

"An  Advocate  roR  Long  Chimneys.'^ 


44 


EXAMPLES  OF  ENGINE  CHIMNEYS. 

The  3Iay field  Experimental  Chimneys, 
— The  original  design  for  the  proportions 
and  dimensions  of  this  chimney  were  made 
by  the  author  for  the  well-known  firm  of 
Thomas  Hoyle  &  Sons,  the  eminent  calico 
printers  of  Manchester,  and  the  chimney 
wa«  erected  for  them  by  the  equally  well- 
known  builders,  Messrs.  David  Bellhouse 
&  Sons,  of  that  city,  several  years  ago. 
Its  total  cost,  including  the  foundation, 
which  was  10  ft.  deep,  by  15  ft.  square 
at  the  bottom,  very  little  exceeded  £100. 

The  shaft  of  this  chimney  is  octagonal  in 
plan,  about  2  ft.  10 1  in.  wide  externally  at 
the  top,  and  5  ft.  at  bottom.  It  stands  on 
a  pedestal  of  8  ft.  square,  which  together 
with  the  shaft  make  up  a  total  height  of  90 
ft.  from  the  ground — that  being  the  lowest 
elevation  allowed  by  the  police  regulations 
of  the  then  borough  of  Manchester.  The 
whole  height  from  the  base  of  the  founda- 
tion being  100  ft.,  and  about  88  ft.  from 
the  level  of  the  fire-grate,  which  is  the 
proper  datum  line  from  which  all  calcula- 
tion respecting  the  draught  is  to  be  taken. 


45 


The  whole,  excepting  the  stone  cap  and 
cornice,  being  of  brickwork. 

The  shaft  has  a  batter,  externally  of  one 
inch  to  the  yard,  which  is  the  usual  rate, 
in  this  part  of  Lancashire.  In  the  northern 
and  hilly  parts  of  the  county — say  about 
Preston  and  Oldham — a  batter  of  one  and 
a  quarter  inch  to  the  yard  is  more  gene- 
rally used. 

The  work  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is 
19  in.  thick,  and  that  of  the  topis  9  in.  The 
shaft  is  entirely  octagonal  inside  throughout 
down  to  the  bottom,  and  externally  to  the 
top  of  the  pedestal. 

The  internal  capacity  of  the  chimney, 
together  with  the  short  flue  connecting  it 
with  the  boiler,  to  which  it  is  attached,  is 
about  50  cubic  yards. 

The  internal  horizontal  area  of  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  aperture  at  the  top  of 
the  chimney  is  about  1,000  sq.  in.,  which, 
as  it  was  intended  to  make  the  chimney 
large  enough  for  about  50  horse  power, 
gives  about  20  sq.  in.  area  for  each  horse 
power;  while,  as  above  stated,  there  was 
about  one  cubic  yard  capacity  in  the  chim- 
ney for  the  same. 


46 


Although,  the  proportion  of  20  sq.  in. 
area  of  chimney  aperture,  for  each  horse 
power  of  a  steam-engine,  had  been  generally 
accounted  in  Lancashire  to  be  according 
to  Boulton  and  Watt,"  neither  that  nor  the 
proportion  of  a  cubic  yard  of  capacity  per 
horse  power  was  adopted  from  any 
theoretical  rule  or  previously  determined 
opinion,  excepting  that  they  were  nearly 
the  average  of  some  of  the  best  chimneys 
we  were  then  well  acquainted  with.  For, 
although  Tredgold's  rule  had  been  pub- 
lished a  few  years  previously,  and  was 
generally  considered  to  be  founded  on 
principles  pretty  nearly  correct,  it  was  very 
evident  that  author  had  not  himself  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  working  of  steam- 
engines  to  enable  him  to  obtain  proper 
constants  for  the  practical  application  of 
his  own  calculations,  simple  and  admirable 
as  the  latter  generally  were.  There  only, 
in  fact,  wanted  a  more  careful  selection  of 
data  to  render  his  formulae  highly  valuable 
to  the  practical  engine-maker. 

The  proprietors  of  the  Mayfield  Print- 
works— the  intimate  friends,  disciples  and 


47 


patrons  of  the  celebrated  John  Dalton,  the 
groat  reformer  of  chemistry,  who  was  at 
the  time  of  these  experiments,  as  he  had 
been  for  some  years  previously,  our  con- 
stant Visitor  and  adviser  in  scientific  matters 
— were  not  the  kind  of  men  to  be  easily  led 
astray  by  Tredgold's,  or  any  other  mere 
theoretical  rules  about  steam-engines,  how- 
ever flourishing  the  algebra  by  which  they 
might  be  surrounded.  They  had  in  fact 
wisely  resolved  to  erect  this  experimental 
chimney  for  the  very  purpose  of  acquiring 
for  themselves  accurate  experimental  knowl- 
edge and  correct  practical  data  in  all  that 
relates  to  chimneys  and  boilers  ;  including 
also,  though  not  at  the  time  an  essential 
object,  a  little  smoke  burning  by  the  way  ; 
in  all  of  which,  not  only  Tredgold,  but  most 
other  theoretical  writers  on  the  steam-engine, 
appeared  to  them  clearjy  deficient. 

On  referring  to  Tredgold's  rule,  in  his 
well-known  work  "  The  Steam  Engine," 
we  found  him  recommending  what  rendered 
his  authority  entirely  nugatory  in  the  mat- 
ter of  chimneys — namely,  that  ^'  a  chimney 
of  double  the  size  given  by  the  rule  should 


48 


be  built ;  "  and,  as  if  conscious  of  the  great 
inconsistency — to  say  the  least — of  giving 
us  this  kind  of  instruction,  he  adds  the  fol- 
lowing very  lame  reason  :  because  the 
expense,''  he  states,  bears  a  small  ratio 
to  the  increase  of  size,  and  it  may  after- 
wards be  convenient  if  considerably  larger 
than  is  necessary  for  the  engine  it  is  erected 
for  !  "  Now,  although  Tredgold,  justly  or 
unjustly,  up  to  that  time  had  stood  foremost 
in  the  application  of  high  mathematical 
acquirements  to  the  improvement  of  the 
steam-engine,  advice  of  this  kind  necessarily 
demolished  all  confidence  in  his  book  as  a 
scientific  guide  on  the  subject  of  chimneys. 

The  extract  above  quoted  from  Tredgold 
is  followed  up  by  an  example  in  which  the 
side  of  a  square  chimney  for  a  40-horse 
engine  is  calculated  to  be  equal  to  23  in. 

But "  he  adds,  "  I  would  advise  to  build 
a  chimney  33  in.  square !  " 

The  rule  and  the  example,  as  given  in 
Woolhouse's  edition  of  Tredgold' s  work 
(Art.  275),  pubUshed  in  1833,  after  the 
author's  death,  are  as  follows  : — 

"  EuLE. — The  area  of  a  chimney  in  inches, 


49 


for  a  low-pressure  steam  engine,  when 
above  10  horse  power,  should  be  112  times 
the  horse  power  of  the  engine,  divided  by 
the  square  root  of  the  height  of  the  chim- 
ney in  feet. 

Example. — Required  the  area  of  a  chim- 
ney for  an  engine  of  40 -horse  power,  the 
height  of  it  being  70  ft. 

In  this  case 

40  X  112      4480  _ 

 ^TT—  —  7— T  =  t>33.2  sq.  in. 

The  square  root  of  this  is  23  in.,  which 
will  be  the  side  of  a  square  chimney.  Or, 
multiply  533  by  1.27,  and  extract  the  square 
root  for  the  diameter  of  a  circular  one.'' 

Now,  as  my  present  purpose  is  the  prac- 
tical one  of  showing  how  a  chimney  for  the 
furnace  of  a  steam-engine  boiler  ought  to 
be  built,  and  what  are  its  proportions,  in 
order  best  to  answer  the  object  in  view, 
namely,  the  obtainment  of  a  good  draught 
with  stability  and  economy — I  shall,  at  least 
in  the  first  instance,  purposely  waive  all 
theoretical  refinements  of  calculation  until  a 
rough  outline  of  the  method  of  proceeding 
be  fairly  estabhshed.    To  efi"ect  this  in  the 


50 


most  simple  and  direct  manner,  I  depend  far 
more  on  practice  than  theory,  on  example 
rather  than  precept— a  mode  of  procedure 
analagous  to  that  of  teaching  any  common 
mechanical  trade,  -which  I  have  occasionally 
resorted  to  on  other  subjects,  with  a  certain 
measure  of  success. 

In  Weale's  large  edition  of  Tredgold  on 
the  Steam  Engine,''  in  4  quarto  volumes, 
1852,  edited  up  to  page  116,  by  the  late 
Professor  James  Hann,  of  King's  College, 
and  thence  up  to  page  308  by  the  present 
writer,  I  gave,  in  the  notes,  some  examples 
of  these  calculations  for  chimneys  adapted 
to  practical  data  first  discovered — at  least, 
collected  and  arranged — by  the  late  Joshua 
Milne,  Esq.,  of  Shaw,  near  Oldham,  some 
years  prior  to  the  first  publication  of  Tred- 
gold's  work,  in  which  the  area  of  the  chim- 
ney is  expressed  in  square  feet  instead  of 
inches  Adapting  Tredgold's  rule  to  Mr. 
Milne's  data,  it  only  requires  the  constant 
multiplier  112  to  be  substituted  by  280,  and 
the  calculation  in  the  above  case  will  then 
stand  as  follows : 

40  y  280  11.200   


51 


instead  of  .533 ;  a  result  nearly  three  times 
as  much  as  that  obtained  by  Tredgold,  and 
the  square  root  of  which  is  36^  in.  for  the 
side  of  the  square  chimney,  instead  of  23  in., 
as  before.  That  is  to  say,  about  3  ft.  and  2 
ft.  square,  respectively. 

It  is  obviously  much  better  to  simplify 
such  practical  rules  as  these,  by  using  the 
same  denomination  for  both  dimensions,  the 
height  and  the  area,  or  the  diameter  of  the 
chimney.  And  since  the  large  expensive 
edition  of  Tredgold  as  above  referred  to,  as 
published  by  Weale,  which  has  been  until 
recently  in  a  great  measure  a  sealed  book 
to  many  practical  men,  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  a  more  liberal  and  enterprising  publisher, 
who  has  made  it  more  accessible  by  reduc- 
ing it  to  less  than  one-half  its  former  price, 
we  have  some  pleasure  in  promoting  its 
utility  in  the  same  direction,  by  adding  here, 
as  was  partially  attempted  in  that  work,  a 
formula  which  includes  Milne's  constant, 
for  ready  computation  by  instrumental  in- 
spection, as  well  as  by  common  arithmetic, 
so  that  every  intelligent  operative  who 
honors  these  pages  by  his   perusal  and 


52 


carries  a  slide-rule,  has  always  at  hand  a 
ready  mode  of  verifying  the  truth  of  our 
statements,  and  comparing  them  with  those 
of  Tredgold,  or  any  other  authority. 

SLIDE-ETJLE    POEMULA    FOR  HOESE    POWEE  OF 
CHIMNEYS. 

Con-   (  Tredgold  112 
stants  (  Milne  .  .  280 
Nom  H.  Power. 


Area  in  inches 


Bq.  root  of  height  in  ft. 

Tredgold' s  example  for  a  40 -horse  engine 
before  referred  to — 

A  I  Area=533  in.  |Tredgold\s  ConR.=1l2| 

Milne's  Const.  ==  280 
'  NomTHrP.    =  16 

In  his  arithmetical  rule,  instead  of  a 
multiplier,  Milne  used  a  divisor  for  a  con- 
stant number,  and  was  in  words  as  fol- 
lows : — 

EuLE. — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the 
height  of  the  chimney  in  feet,  by  the  square 
of  its  internal  diameter  at  its  top  or 
narrowest  part  also  in  feet,  and  half  the 
product  will  be  the  nominal  horse -power 
that  the  chimney  is  equal  to. 


53 


Taking  the-  samo  exaaiple  as  before,  it  i.3 
by  arithmetic — 

v/70  X  (1ft.  11  in.,  or)  1  9'2-^     8.4  X  3.68_^. 
divided  by  2  2 

horse  power  ;  and  by  the  slide  rule  it  is  ap- 
prox  h)  I  ately — 

A  Diam        3.68l     Potis.  r^ivisor  2 
;j      height  =^8  4i Horse  power  =  15.4 

After  we  first  published  these  chimney 
rules,  at  the  desire  of  Mr.  Milne,  several 
years  ago,  apprising  him  at  the  time  of  the 
wide  difference  between  his  and  Tredgold's 
results,  we  soon  found,  and  he  admitted,  that 
a  somewhat  smaller  proportion  of  chimney 
area  would  be  more  nearly  in  accordance 
with  the  general  practice  throughout  the 
country,  more  especially  where  a  better 
quality  of  coal  was  burned  than  that  ordi- 
narily used  at  the  factories  in  Oldham, 
where,  from  the  peculiar  quality  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  carried  on  there — 
spinning  coarse  cotton,  waste,  and  shoddy 
— a  larger  measure  of  w^ork  was  usually 
allowed  for  a  nominal  horse  power  than 
elsewhere.    In  fact,  two  indicated  horse- 


54 


jDOwer  for  one  nominal,  was  then  the  regular 
Oldham  measure  for  steam-engines. 

If  we  take  Tredgold's  advice,  and  give 
double  the  area  of  chimney- top  obtained  by 
his  rule,  then  the  adoption  of  1|  instead  of 
2  for  a  constant  divisor  will  give  that  result 
which  we  may  conveniently  call  the  actual 
instead  of  the  nominal,  or  Oldham  horse 
power,  which  will  still,  as  it  ought,  be  con- 
siderably in  excess  of  the  indicated  power 
of  steam-engines  in  general. 

In  illustration  of  this,  take— 

Example  2. — Required  the  number  of 
horse  power  most  suitable  in  connection 
with  the  experimental  chimney  at  Mayfield 
already  described;  the  height  above  the 
level  of  the  fire-bars  being  88  ft.,  and  the 
inside  diameter  at  the  top  2  ft  10^  in. 

SOLUTION  BY  SLIDE-ETJLE. 

{Slide  mvertedas  before,) 
A  I  JUuim.  -lii.  lU^  m.  1^=2.872=3.2-1 
0  j  Vlit.  Kp^)  =9.38  I 

New  CoDst.  =115 
AiiBwer  5i  H. 

l^xample    3. — Another    new  chimney 


i 


55 


erected  tlie  same  year,  in  the  same  works 
(Thomas  Iloyle  &  Sons),  was  3^  ft.  diame- 
ter by  40  yards  high.  E-equired  the  horse 
power  it  is  equal  to. 


S0LUTI017. 


A 

Diam.  U  ft  1^  =12i 

CoiiRt.  rnimber  1  i 

0 

Horse  power  yO 

The  chimney  in  this  example  (3)  was 
erected  in  November  of  the  same  year,  and 
by  the  same  builder  as  that  in  Example  2. 
It  was  built  with  similar  materials  in  the 
same  manner  like  the  preceding  chimney. 
The  shaft  was  octagonal,  but  higher  in 
proportion  to  its  area  than  the  former,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  away  the  smoke 
from  contact  with  some  adjacent  buildings, 
and  the  cost  was  about  double  that  of  the 
experimental  chimney.  By  which  it  will 
be  seen  that  we  had  arrived  at  a  fair 
average  cost  of  chimney-building  in  pro- 
portion to  the  power  capable  of  being  pro- 
duced in  that  way,  so  far  as  chimneys  of 
this  character,  and  from  30  to  40  yards 
high,  are  concerned — namely,  about  £2  per 
horse  power. 


56 

The  very  many  practical  tests  of  various 
kinds  that  were  applied  to  these  two  chim- 
neys, during  several  successsive  years,  such 
as  finding  that  the  second  chimney  was 
equally  applicable  to  two  as  the  first  or 
experimental  chimney  was  to  one  boiler  of 
similar  size,  not  much  over  or  under  45  or 
50  horse  each,  convinced  us  that  we  had 
approximated  near  to  the  data  we  were  in 
quest  of. 

The  Dxichwfield  Bleach  'Works ^  Chim- 
ney and  Furnaces. — The  subject  of  our 
next  example  in  chimney  building  served 
still  further  to  corroborate  our  Mayfield  ex- 
periments in  all  respects  except  as  to  cost, 
which  of  course  greatly  diminished  as  the 
scale  of  our  operations  became  larger. 

This  chimney  was  erected  early  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  following  the  completion 
of  those  last  named,  at  Messrs.  Hoyle  & 
Sons'  New  Bleach  Works,  then  erecting  at 
Sandy  Lane,  between  Duckinfield  and  Sta- 
leybridge. 

In  the  planning  of  the  chimney  and  flues, 
and  furnishing  the  designs,  with  all  their 
details,  and  four  large  boilers,  for  which  the 


57 


writer  was  more  especially  engaged,  and 
which  were  expected  to  furnish  from  200  to 
300  horse  power  of  steam,  we  had  the  valu- 
able assistance  of  Mr.  John  Graham,*  after- 
wards a  member  of  the  firm,  and  whose 
eminent  talents  as  a  scientific  and  practical 
chemist  are  generally  known — as  we  also 
previously  had  the  cordial  assistance,  gen- 
eral concurrence  and  approval  of  the  late 
Mr.  Alfred  Binyon,  the  then  managing 
partner. 

Example  4. — The  Duckinfield  Bleach 
Works  chimney  was  made  45  yards  high 
by  6  ft.  inside  diameter  at  the  top.  Ke- 
quired  the  horse  power  it  is  equal  to. 

SOLUTION. 

A  j  Diam.  fi  ft.  |«  =  36  |New  oonstftnt  =  \  \ 
Q  jVlit.  ( 1  c{5  ft. )  =  1 1 .  bjHurse  power  =  27b 
Milne's  Const.  2 

The  above  slide-rule  solution  for  the 
power  of  this  chimney  gives  two  answers  to 


*  See  a  valuable  paper  by  this  gentleman  in  vol.  xv.  of  the 
"Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of 
Manchester,"  for  the  years  1857-8.    A  portion  of  it  was  also 


58 

the  question — namely,  278  and  208  horse 
power,  respectively,  according  as  the  new 
constant  IJ,  or  Milne's  old  constant  2,  are 
used  as  gauge  points.  In  this  case  the  lat- 
ter was  preferred,  as  giving  the  most  cor- 
rect result,  by  reason  of  the  kind  of  fuel  in- 
tended to  be  consumed  being  of  the  same  or 
similar  inferior  quality  to  that  already  re- 
ferred to  as  being  in  general  use  within  the 
parish  of  Oldham,  to  which  these  works 
were  nearly  adjoining.  Facility  in  obtain- 
ing this  cheap  fuel — known  as  ^^burgey'^ 
and  slack  " — being  one  of  the  chief  rea- 
sons for  erecting  the  works  in  this  particu- 
lar locality. 

THE  EXPEKIMENTAL  BOILERS. 

In  the  collection  of  data  for  steam-engine 
chimneys,  it  would  be  a  great  omission  to 
leave  out  the  particular  dimensions  of  the 


republished  in  the  "Engineer "  newspaper  for  March  12,  1858, 
"which  gave  an  account  of  a  series  of  evaporating  experiments, 
"  made  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  economy  of  fuel  and  man- 
agement effected  at  these  boilers  and  furnaces  through  a  series 
of  iuccessive  years,  which  will  w«ll  repay  perusal,  and  will  be 
further  adverted  to  in  a  subsequent  pai-t  or  appendix  to  this 
work. 


59 


boiler,  to  cause  the  efficient  working  of 
which  is,  in  fact,  the  only  profitable  work 
the  chimney  has  to  do. 

The  boiler,  for  which  the  Mayfield  ex- 
perimental chimney  was  erected,  was  de- 
signed by  the  writer,  as  was  also  the  chim- 
ney, as  already  stated,  specially  for  experi- 
mental purposes,  in  acqu  xing  all  practical 
information  on  the  subject  previous  to 
commencing  the  construction  of  Messrs. 
Hoyle  &  Sons'  new  Bleaching  and  Calico- 
printing  Works  at  Duckinfield,  near  Staley- 
bridge.  For  this  purpose  I  did  not  hesitate 
to  recommend  the  plainest  and  simplest 
form  of  boiler  that  can  be  conceived — 
namely,  a  plain  cylinder,  laid  horizontally, 
or  nearly  so,  with  the  fire  to  go  underneath 
it  at  one  end,  and  out  to  the  chimney  at  the 
other,  which  may  now  be  described. 

This  experimental  boiler  was  of  the 
"direct  draught kind,  that  is,  without  re- 
turn flues,  and  this  one  had  no  flues  of  any 
kind,  either  inside  or  out.  The  boiler 
and  chimney  were,  therefore  both  of  the 
simplest  possible  kind,  and  for  that  reason, 
made  mutual  tests  of  their  respective  capa- 


60 

bilities  through  a  long  series  of  very  accu- 
rate experiments  relative  to  economy  of  fuel, 
as  well  as  to  the  efficiency  of  various 
methods  of  smoke  prevention,  or  smoke 
burning,  as  it  was  then  popularly  termed, 
and  other  matters  of  interest  to  the  pro- 
prietors. Improvments  in  smoke  preven- 
tion especially  were  freely  invited  from  all 
quarters,  and  this  was  the  boiler  at  which 
very  many  different  plans  for  the  purpose 
were  tried. 

This  kind  of  boiler  was  fnlly  described  in 
the  author^s  "  Essay  on  the  Boilers  of  Steam 
Engines  "  (1839),  and  the  principal  dimen- 
sions of  this  one,  as  there  given,  need  only 
be  shortly  referred  to  here.  It  was  in 
shape  cylindrical,  and  fully  equal  to  30 
horse -power,  being  33^  ft.  long  by  5^  di- 
ameter, and  "  set  up,"  or  rather  hung,  by 
means  of  cast-iron  brackets  riveted  to  the 
sides,  and  resting  on  the  side  walls  of  the 
furnace,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  lower  half 
of  its  convex  surface,  about  32  square 
yards,  was  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  fire  and  flame. 

The  fire-grate,  placed  about  22  in.  below 


61 


the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  was  5i-  ft.  square, 
or  equal  to  about  30  sq.  ft.  in  area,  and 
was  composed  of  one  length  of  fire-bars, 
each  1|  in.  thick  on  the  face,  with  air- 
spaces of  to  I  of  an  inch  wide  between 
them. 

This  boiler  supplied  steam  to  an  old 
Boulton  and  Watt  condensing  engine  of  16- 
horse  power,  by  Messrs.  Sherratt,  of  Sal- 
ford,  loaded  so  as  to  require  seldom  less 
than  24  cubic  feet  of  water  to  be  eyaporated 
per  hour  at  a  pressure  of  exactly  4  lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  It  also  supplied  steam  for  heating 
drying  cylinders,  for  boiling  water,  and  for 
a  great  variety  of  other  purposes,  amount- 
ing at  times  to  nearly  as  much  as  the  engine 
required  itself.  The  least  ayerage  evapora- 
tion for  a  whole  day  together  was  33,  and 
the  greatest  45  cubic  feet  per  hour.  The 
lower  amount  was,  of  course,  obtained  at 
the  most  economical  rate,  namely,  at  about 
6  lbs.  of  water  evaporated  for  each  pound  of 
common  coal  burned.  It  was,  therefore, 
considered  to  be  full  30-horse  power.  A 
cubic  foot  of  water  evaporated  per  hour 
being  generally  considered  amply  sufficient 


62 


to  supply  steam  for  each  horse  power  (nom- 
inal) of  a  Boulton  and  Watt  or  low-pressure 
engine  in  good  order,  however  it  might  be 
at  times  overloaded. 

Although  this  evaporation  of  a  cubic  foot;, 
or  a  little  over  six  imperial  gallons  of  water^ 
of  10  lbs.  each,  is  what  boilermakers  have 
universally,  and  practical  engineers  com- 
monly, agreed  to  consider  nominally  a  boiler 
horse  power,  there  is  no  doubt,  however, 
that  the  same  weight  of  water,  as  steam,  at 
a  higher  pressure  can  easily  be,  and  is  fre- 
quently, made  to  work  two  or  three  indi- 
cated horse  power  in  a  modern  steam- 
engine,  accordingly  as  the  latter  is  arranged 
to  work  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  expan- 
sively. 

This  boiler  was  made  of  Low  Moor  iron 
t\  in.  thick,  except  the  bottom  row  of 
plates,  which  were  f  in.  and  the  flat  ends 
by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  of  Manchester,  who 
had  just  previously  commenced  the  boiler- 
making  business,  and  was  then  a  staunjh. 
advocate  for  introducing  the  long  Cornish 
high-pressure  boiler,  with  its  one  large  in- 
ternal furnace-fiue,   and   single  furnace- 


63 


grate.  Instead  of  that  kind  of  boiler,  now 
much  less  used,  except  in  Wales  and  Corn- 
wall, I  persisted  in  advising  the  simple  and 
elementary  form  of  boiler  now  described. 
It  was  also  suspended  by  bracket  flanges  in 
the  cheap  and  simple  manner  above  men- 
tioned, in  accordance  with  the  universal 
dogma  of  its  strictly  utilitarian  owners, 
which  in  this,  as  in  all  other  business  mat- 
ters connected  with  the  works,  was  never 
lost  sight  of  for  a  moment, — in  order  that 
any  alterations  or  improvements  that  might 
be  found  expedient,  either  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  boiler,  or  erection  of  the  brick- 
work, might  be  in  the  shape  of  additions 
merely,  and  therefor  capable  of  being  sep- 
arately proved,  both  as  to  first  cost  and 
utility,  afid  also  that  our  experiments  might 
be  carried  on  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time, 
without  the  usual  liability  to  interruption 
from  the  necessity  of  cleaning  out  of  flues 
or  otherwise. 

The  last-mentioned  particular  in  the  erec- 
tion of  this  boiler  was  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  thus  attaining  the  main  object 
we  had  in  view,  as  well  as  in  accomplishing 


64 


another  object  greatly  desired  by  the  ben- 
evolent proprietors  of  the  works,  that  of 
doing  away  with  the  degrading  practice  of 
sweeping  out  the  flues  by  means  of  men,  or 
rather  boys,  crawling  through  them. 

Trifling  as  a  small  matter  of  this  kind 
may  appear  to  some,  it  is  important  to  show 
that,  in  this  instance  at  least,  it  was  attend- 
ed by  considerable  economy.  Cast-iron 
lugs  or  brackets,  with  broad  flanges,  were 
riveted  along  each  side  of  the  boiler,  a  little 
above  the  intended  surface  level  of  the 
water,  and  these  brackets  rested  on  the  tops 
of  the  two  vertical  side  walls  of  the  furnace 
and  flame-bed.  The  boiler  thus  suspended 
between  the  two  side  walls  was  then  ad- 
justed, not  quite  horizontally,  but  slightly 
inclined,  with  a  fall  of  about  8  in.  towards 
the  front  end,  so  that  a  greater  proportion 
of  the  water  was  brought  immediately  over 
the  fire-grate. 

This  arrangement  of  the  flame-bed  and 
seating,  or  side  walls,  of  the  boiler,  formed 
a  chamber  or  receptacle,  large  enough  to 
hold  all  the  flue -dust  and  dirt  that  could  be 
found  from  the  use  of  any  kind  of  coal 


65 


whatever,  for  a  considerable  time.  In  fact, 
although  the  boiler  was  every  day  at  work, 
the  flame-bed  did  not  require  any  cleaning 
out,  even  at  the  end  of  nearly  two  years, — 
when,  as  an  opportunity  occurred,  several 
cart-loads  of  flue-dust  were  removed  from 
under  the  boiler  at  one  time.  The  occasion 
of  having  this  operation  performed,  dis- 
covered to  us  a  circumstance,  which  is  some- 
times the  cause  of  great  disappointment  to 
the  expectations  of  parties  who,  for  the  first 
time,  have  boilers  erected  on  this  direct 
draught  plan,  which  requires  an  explana- 
in  this  place. 

At  all  direct  draught  boilers,  it  is  usual 
to  have,  and  highly  necessary  that  there 
should  be,  two  or  more  transverse  check 
or  flame-bridges,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
fire-bridge,  carried  up  to  within  6  or  7  in. 
of  the  boiler  bottom  ;  but  in  this  case,  there 
was,  in  the  first  instance,  only  one  of  these 
additional  bridges,  and  the  man  employed 
to  get  out  the  flue-dust  had,  in  order  to 
make  an  easier  passage  for  himself,  removed 
two  or  three  courses  of  brick-work  from  the 
top  of  the  flame-bridge,  and  neglected  to 


66 


replace  them  again.  The  consequence  was, 
that  on  the  boiler  commencing  work  again, 
a  clear  loss  of  15  per  cent,  in  fuel  was  de- 
tected immediately,  besides  the  overheating 
of  the  damper-plate  and  brickwork  of  the 
chimney  entrance,  which  evils  were,  of 
course,  quickly  rectified  by  replacing  the 
brickwork.  Although  no  very  great  nicety 
is  required  in  adjusting  the  height  of  these 
flame-bridges,  and  an  inch  or  two  higher  or 
lower  may  not  make  much  difference  in  the 
economy  of  fuel ;  but  the  extent  of  8  or  9 
in.  in  depth  of  the  air  passage  over  them, 
when  there  is  already  a  depth  of  the  same 
extent  in  the  throat  area  over  the  furnace- 
bridge,  will  at  any  time  cause  an  exorbitant 
waste  of  fuel. 

The  fact  of  an  error  of  this  kind,  which 
is  very  liable  to  be  passed  over  unnoticed 
by  ordinary  bricklayers  and  boiler-setters, 
unless  very  carefully  supervised,  has  been  ' 
frequently  the  occasion  of  much  error  in 
experiments  on  the  economy  of  fuel.  It  is 
all  the  more  necessary  to  mention  the 
above  circumstances  here,  because,  since 
my  description  of  the  direct  draught  method 


67 


of  setting  boilers  was  first  published  in 
1837-8,  I  have  occasionally  had  complaints 
from  parties  who  had  been  induced  to 
adopt  the  direct  plan,  but  had  not  suc- 
ceeded in  realizing  any  moderate  measure 
of  economy  therefrom,  and  had,  in  conse- 
quence, too  readily,  or  without  sufficient  ex- 
amination, given  it  up,  and  returned  again 
to  the  wheel-draught,  narrow  flue  system, 
with  its  little  army  of  chimney-sweeps, 
boiler-menders,  and  laborers,  and  all  its 
other  disagreeable  and  expensive  accom- 
paniments of  Sunday  work,  over- work,  and 
night-work.  It  is,  however,  but  fair  to 
state  that  extreme  cases  of  this  kind  have 
been  mostly  confined  to  the  South  of  Eng- 
land and  the  metropolis,  where  the  ex- 
travagant use  of  flaming  Newcastle  or 
Hartley  coal,  with  very  much  unnecessary 
stoking  of  the  fires,  is  still  continued. 
These  results  have  been  helped  not  a  little, 
perhaps,  by  the  prognostications  of  many 
of  the  old  school  of  bricklayers,  that  the 
direct  draught  plan  would  *^send  all  the 
heat  up  the  chimney,"  and  who  too  often 
testify  their  sincerity  in  such  a  belief  by 


68 


taking  especial  care  to  build  tlieir  chimneys 
and  flues  very  narrow  and  very  crooked. 

The  prejudices  of  some  of  the  attendants 
of  engines  in  London  in  favor  of  much 
stoking  and  hard  firing,  which  is  literally 
working  hard  at  wasting  coal,  are  difficult 
to  account  for,  especially  when  found 
among  persons  not  notorious  for  working 
hard  at  anything  else ;  but  a  residence 
among  them  of  any  one  whose  business  is 
to  save  fuel,  will  very  soon  convince  him  of 
the  fact.  Hence  a  more  careful  attention 
to  the  condition  of  all  the  bridges  under  a 
boiler  is  a  necessity  which  ought  never  to 
be  neglected. 

INSTRTJCTlOlfS  TO  STOKEES. 

1.  Engineers  and  firemen  who  would  keep 
steam  with  economy,  should  do  with  as  lit- 
tle stoking  or  stirring  of  the  fire  as  possible, 
if  any.  In  order  to  do  so,  they  should  see 
before  starting  that  the  furnace  is  properly 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  large 
enough  for  the  quantity  of  steam  required. 
The  fire-grate  should  have  about  1  sq.  ft.  of 
effective  fire-bar  surface  for  each  nominal 


69 


horse-power  of  tlie  engine,  or  for  each  cubic 
foot  of  water  required  to  be  boiled  away  per 
hour.  The  fire-bars  may  be  from  |  to  f  in. 
thick  on  the  face  with  J  to  f-in.  draught 
spaces  between  them,  and  with  joggles  to 
keep  them  asunder  nearly  the  whole  depth 
of  the  bar.  The  boiler  should  have,  at 
least,  8  or  10  sq.  ft  of  heating  surface  per 
horse,  and  the  chimney  should  be  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  create  a  draught  into  the 
furnace  equal  to  the  pressure  of  a  column 
of  water  f  to  |  in.  deep,  when  the  damper 
is  set  wide  open. 

2.  In  firing,  spread  the  large  and  small 
coals  (equally  mixed)  on  all  parts  of  the 
grate,  thicker  at  the  back  of  the  grate  near 
the  bridge  than  at  the  front,  because  the 
draught  is  there  the  strongest,  and  the  coals 
burn  away  the  quickest. 

3.  The  fire  should  never  be  less  than 
about  3  or  4  inches  thick  in  the  middle  of 
its  length,  2  or  3  in.- ia  fronut-  "and  6  or  8*ii'. 
at  the  back  of  ihe  '^i  sif^'.  In  no  ease  s^hould 
the  fire  exceed  double  the  depth  here  stated ; 
and  never  more  (ban  two- thirds  6f  the  firo'- 


70 


•grate  should  be  entirely  covered  with  fresh 
coals  at  one  time. 

4.  If  a  regularly  uniform  supply  of  steam 
is  required  and  the  damper  quite  up,  the 
quantity  of  fuel  on  the  grate  may  be  grad- 
ually increased;  but  when  an  increasing 
quantity  of  steam  is  wanted,  the  average 
thickness  or  quantity  of  fuel  on  the  grate 
must  not  then  be  increased,  but  ought  rath- 
er to  be  diminished,  and  supplied  by  small- 
er quantities  at  a  time,  and  more  frequently. 
So  soon,  however,  as  the  supply  of  steam 
exceeds  the  demand,  the  coal  must  again  be 
supplied  by  larger  quantities  at  a  time,  reg- 
ularly increasing  the  quantity  of  fuel  in  the 
grate  as  before.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
a  diminished  supply  of  steam  is  required, 
close  the  damper  a  little,  and  take  the 
opportunity  of  levelling  the  fire  or  cleaning 
the  fire-bars,  doing  one-half  of  the  grate  at 
a  time. 

• '  5i  A  -  s^6am-en  gine  furnace  worked  in 
rh?s  v^a?  will  liake  very^  Httla'snxsko';  or,  if 
any,  it  may  be  prevented  when  desirable 
©pehto^  tjia^re-dpor  2  6r  3  in.  for  1  or 


71 


2  min..  after  each  firing.  Bearing  in  mind 
that  the  production  of  steam  is  commonly 
lessened  by  doing  so,  but  so  is  the  consump- 
tion of  the  fuel. 

6.  Stokers  should  understand  that  they 
are  not  to  make  a  business  of  stoking," 
but  to  leave  it  off  entirely,  excepting  only 
when  preparing  to  clear  out  the  grate  from 
clinkers  and  rubbish,  which  requires  to  be 
done  generally  three  or  four  times  a  day 
with  average  qualities  of  coal ;  convenient 
times  being  chosen  for  the  purpose  when 
there  is  the  least  demand  for  steam. 

7.  A  fireman's  business  is,  first,  to  see, 
before  the  fire-door  is  opened,  that  no  coal 
is  left  in  the  heap  ready  for  going  on  big- 
ger  than  a  man's  fist ;  and  that  very  small 
coal  or  slack  is  wetted,  or  at  least  damp,  as. 
well  as  a  little  water  always  in  the  ash-pit* 
Then  begin  by  charging  into  the  farther 
end  of  the  furnace,  reaching  to  about  one- 
third  the  length  of  the  grate  from  the 
bridge,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  from  a  dozen 
to  twenty  or  thirty  spadefuls  of  coals,  until 
they  form  a  bank  reaching  nearly  ox  quitQ 


up  to  the  top  of  tlie  bridge,  and  then  shut 
the  fire-door,  until  the  other  fires,  if  there 
are  any,  are  served  in  the  same  way. 

8.  In  firing  up,  throw  the  coals  over  the 
rest  of  the  grate  by  scattering  them  evenly 
from  side  to  side,  but  thinner  at  the  front, 
near  the  dead  plate,  than  at  the  middle  or 
back.  In  this  manner  keep  the  fuel  mode- 
rately thick  and  level  across  the  bars,  but 
always  thicker  at  the  back  than  the  front, 
not  by  pushing  the  fire  in,  but  by  throwing 
the  coals  on  exactly  where  they  are 
wanted. 

9.  Never  for  a  moment  leave  any  por- 
tion of  the  bars  uncovered,  which  must  be 
prevented  by  throwing  or  pitching  a  spade- 
ful of  coals  right  into  any  hollow  or  thin 
place  that  appears ;  and  always  remember 
that  three  or  four  spadefuls  thrown  quickly 
one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  will  make  no 
more  smoke  than  one,  and  generally  less. 
But  all  depends  on  doing  it  quickly ;  that 
being  the  main,  if  not  the  only  point  in 
which  freedom  from  smoke  and  economy  of 
fuel  agree.  Some  firemen  only  put  on  three 


78 


spadefuls,  while  another  can  put  on  four, 
and  make  20  per  cent,  more  steam  in  the 
same  time  by  doing  it. 

10.  In  replenishing  the  fire,  take  every 
opportunity  of  keeping  up  the  bank  of  fuel 
at  the  bridge,  by  re-charging  it,  one  side  at 
a  time.  Whenever  this  bank  is  burnt  en- 
tirely tlirough,  or  low,  and  also  when  the 
fire  is  in  a  low  state  generally,  take  the 
rake  and  draw  back  the  half-burnt  fuel,  12 
or  18  in.  from  the  bridge,  and  re-charge 
fresh  coal  into  its  place,  upon  the  bare  fire- 
bars as  at  first. 

11.  An  engine  fire  tended  in  this  way 
will  consume  its  own  smoke  without  diffi- 
culty, simply  by  admitting  a  very  moderate 
supply  of  air  (which  for  safety  to  the  boiler 
should  be  heated)  at  the  bridge,  this  being 
a  more  certain  and  economical  mode  of 
prevention  than  that  of  diluting  the  smoke 
by  the  admission  of  much  cold  air  at  the 
fire-doors. 

12.  It  may  be  set  down  as  an  axiom  that 
a  steam-engine  chimney  cannot  be  too 
large,  if  only  provided  with  a  damper,  al- 


74 


though  ninety-nine  in  one  hundred,  at  the 
present  time,  are  decidedly  too  small. 
They  are  unable  to  create  a  sufficient 
draught  of  air  through  the  furnace,  conse- 
quently a  smoky  flame  is  produced,  instead 
of  a  flame  with  little  or  no  smoke. 

13.  Want  of  chimney  draught  is  a  defect 
which  no  smoke-consuming  furnace  in  the 
world  can  remedy,  whether  using  hot  air 
or  cold,  unless  by  the  application  of  an 
artificial  blast,  which  commonly  costs  as 
much  to  work  as  the  heat  it  creates  is 
worth. 

14.  It  being  impossible  to  consume 
smoke  without  great  heat,  which  requires  a 
good  draught,  and  difficult  to  get  a  good 
draught  without  a  large  chimney,  I  here 
set  down  a  table  of  chimney  proportions, 
which  have  been  practically  proved  to 
answer  well  with  the  inferior  steam  coal  of 
the  manufacturing  and  midland  districts 
for  many  years  past.  It  is  true  that  some- 
what smaller  dimensions  might  serve  where 
the  extravagant  use  of  Newcastle  coal  is 
still  continued,  as  in  London;  but  even 


75 


here  those  dimensions  and  proportions 
ought  to  be  adhered  to,  because  of  the  con- 
stant tendency  to  increase  the  engine  and 
boiler  power,  while  the  same  brick  chim- 
ney remains.  For  similar  reasons  I  com- 
mence with  a  chimney  suitable  for  a  10- 
horse  boiler,  although  a  5,  or  even  a*2- 
horse  engine  only,  may  be  required. 


Height  of  Chimney. 

Inside 
Diameter  at 
Top. 

Nominal 
Horse-power 
of  Boiler. 

25  -   

1  ft.  6  in. 

10 

1      8  " 

12 

30  "   

1  *'10 

16 

33  "   

2      0  " 

20 

35   

2  6 

30 

40   

3  "  0  " 

50 

40  "   

3  "  6  " 

70 

40  "   

4      0  " 

90 

45   

4      6  " 

120 

50   

5  "  0  " 

160 

55  "   

5  6 

200 

60   

6      0  " 

250 

15.  A  common  low-pressure  condensing 
engine  is  usually  overloaded  when  it  has 
less  than  25  circular  in.  in  the  cylinder 
for  each  nominal  horse-power  ;  and  a  high- 
pressure  non-condensing  engine  ought  to 


76 


have  from  10  to  12^,  and  to  be  worked  at 
double  the  effective  pressure,  at  the  least, 
of  the  former,  — say  30  to  40  lbs.  per  square 
inch  in  the  boiler. 


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WARD  (J.  H.)  Steam  for  the  Million.  A  popular 
Treatise  on  Steam  and  its  Application  to  the  Useful 
Arts,  especially  to  Navigation.  By  J.  H,  Ward, 
Commander  U.  S.  Navy.  New  and  revised  edition. 
I  vol,  Svo,  cloth   I  00 

WEISBACH  (Julius).  Principles  of  the  Mechanics  of 
Machinery  and  Engineering.  By  Dr.  Julius  Weis- 
bach,  of  Freiburg,  Translated  from  the  last  German 
edition.   ,  Vol.  I.,  Svo,  cloth   10  00 


5 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND's  PUBLICATIONS. 


DIEDRICH.  The  Theory  of  Strains,  a  Compendium 
for  the  calculation  and  construction  of  13ridges,  Roofs, 
and  Cranes,  with  the  application  of  Trigonometrical 
Notes,  containing  the  most  comprehensive  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  Resulting  strains  for  a  perman- 
ent Load,  as  also  for  a  combined  (Permanent  and 
Rolling)  i.oad.  In  two  sections,  adadted  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  present  time.  By  John  Dredrich, 
V.  E.  Illustrated  by  numerous  plates  and  diagrams. 
8vo,  cloth  

WILLIAMSON  (R.  S.)  On  the  use  of  the  Barometer  on 
Surveys  and  Reconnoissances.  Part  I.  Meteorology 
in  its  Connection  with  Hj-'psometry.  Part  XL  Baro- 
metric Hypsometry.  By  R.  S.  Wiliamson,  Bvt. 
Lieut.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  Engineers. 
With  Illustrative  I'ables  and  Engravings.  Paper 
No.  15,  Professional  Papers,  Corps  of  Engineers. 


I  vol.  4to,  cloth     15  00 

POOK  (S.  M.)  Method  of  Comparing  the  Lines  and 
Draughting  Vessels  Propelled  by  Sail  or  Steam. 
Including  a  chapter  on  Laying  off  on  the  Mould- 
Loft  Floor.  By  Samuel  M.'Pook,  Naval  Construc- 
tor.   I  vol.  8vo,  with  illustrations,  cloth   5  00 

ALEXANDER  (J.  H.)  Universal  Dictionary  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  Ancient  and  Modern,  re- 
duced to  the  standards  of  the  United  States  of  Ame- 
rica.   By  J.  H.  Alexander.    New  edition,  enlarged. 

I  vol.  8vo,  cloth   3  50 

BROOKLYN  WATER  WORKS.  Containing  a  De- 
scriptive Account  of  the  Construction  of  the  Works, 
and  also  Reports  on  the  Brooklyn,  Hartford,  Belle- 
ville and  Cambridge  Pumping  Engines.  With  illustra- 
tions.   I  vol.  folio,  cloth   20  00 

RICHARDS'  INDICATOR.  A  Treatise  on  the  Rich- 
ards Steam  Engine  Indicator,  with  an  Appendix  by 
F.  W.  Bacon,  M.  E.    i8mo,  flexible,  cloth   z  00 

6 


D.  VAN  NOSTKAND'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


POPE.  Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph.  A 
Hand  Book  for  Electricians  and  operators.  By  Frank 
L.  Pope     Eighth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  and 

fully  illlustrated.    8vo,  cloth  $2.00 

'*  There  is  un  other  work  of  this  kind  in  the  English  language  that  con- 
tains in  so  sniall  a  compass  so  much  practical  iatorniatioa  in  the  appli- 
i-.  iiou  of  galvanic  eiectrlcit.v  to  telegraphy.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
♦rT«ryoue  iutereated  iu  telegraphy,  or  the  use  of  Batteries  for  othar  pur- 
poses." 

MORSE.  Examination  of  the  Telegraphic  Apparatus 
and  the  Processes  in  Telegraphy.  By  Samuel  F. 
Morse,  LL.D. .  U-  S.  Commissioner  Paris  Universal 


Exposition,  1867.    Illustrated,  8vo,  cloth  $2  00 

SABINE.  History  and  Progress  of  the  F-lectric  Tele- 
graph, with  descriptions  of  some  of  the  apparatus. 
By  Robert  Sabine,  C.  E.  Second  edition,  with  ad- 
ditions, i2mo,  cloth   I  25 

CULLEY.  A  Hand- Book  of  Practical  Telegraphy.  By 
R.  S.  CuUey,  Engineer  to  the  Electric  and  Interna- 
tional Telegraph  Company.  Fourth  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.    Illustrated  8vo,  cloth   5  00 

BENET.  Electro-Balhstic  Machines,  and  the  Schultz 
Chronoscope.  By  Lieut. -Col.  S.  V.  Benet,  Captain 
of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  Army.  Illustrated,  second  edi- 
tion, 4to,  cloth   3  00 

MICHAELIS.  The  Le  Houlenge  Chronograph,  with 
three  Lithograph  folding  plates  of  illustrations.  By 
Brevet  Captain  O.  E.  Michaehs,  First  Lieutenant 
Ordnance  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,    4to,  cloth   3  00 


ENGINEERING  FACTS  AND  FIGURES  An 
Annual  Register  of  i'rogress  in  Mechanical  Engineer- 
ing and  Construction  for  the  years  1863,  64,  65,66, 
67,  68.  Fully  illustrated,  6  vols,  i8mo,  cloth,  $2.50 
per  vol.,  each  volume  sold  separately  

HAMILTON^.  Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men- 
Compiled  by  W.  G.  Hamilton,  Engineer.  Fifth  edi- 
tion, revised  and  enlarged,  562  pages  Pocket  form. 
Morocco,  gilt  ,   2  00 

7 


r>.  VAN  NOSTRAND'S  PUBLTCATir^NS. 


STUART.  The  Civil  and  Military  Engineers  of  Amer- 
ica. By  Gen.  C.  B.  Stuart.  With  9  finely  executed 
portraits  of  eminent  engineers,  and  illustrated  by 
etigravings  of  some  of '.he  most  important  works  con- 
structed in  America.    8vo,  cloth   $5  00 

CrONEY.  The  Theory  of  Strains  in  Girders  and  simi- 
lar structures,  v;ith  observations  on  the  application  of 
Theory  to  Practice,  and  I'ables  of  IStrength  and  other 
properties  of  Materials.  By  Bmdon  B.  Stoney,  B.  A. 
New  and  revised  edition,  enlarged,  with  numerous 
engravings  on  wood,  by  Oldham.  Royal  8vo,  664 
pages.    Complete  in  one  volume.    8vo,  cloth.   15  00 

.SHREVE.  A  Treatise  on  the  Strength  of  Bridges  and 
Roofs.  Comprising  the  determination  of  Algebraic 
formulas  for  strains  in  Horizontal,  Inclined  or  Rafter, 
Triangular,  Bowstring,  Lenticular  and  other  Trusses, 
from  fixed  and  moving  loads,  with  practical  applica- 
tions and  examples,  for  the  use  of  Students  and  Engi- 
neers. By  Samuel  H.  Shreve,  A.  M. ,  Civil  Engineer, 
87  woodcut  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth   5  00 

MERRILL.  Iron  Truss  Bridges  for  Railroads.  The 
method  of  calculating  strains  in  'iVusses,  with  a  care- 
ful comparison  of  the  most  prominent  Trusses,  in 
reference  to  economy  in  combination,  etc,  etc.  By 

'  Brevet.  Col-  William  E.  Merrill,  U  S.  A.,  Major 
Corps  of  Engineers,  with  nine  hthographed  plates  of 
illustrations.    4to,  cloth  ,   500 

WHIPPLE.  An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise  on 
Bridge  Building.  An  enlarged  and  improved  edition 
of  the  author's  original  work.  By  S.  Whipple,  C.  E., 
inventor  of  the  Whipple  Bridges,  &c.  Illustrated 
8vo,  cloth   4  00 

THE  KANSAS  CITY  BRIDGE.  With  an  account 
of  the  Regimen  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  methods  used  for  Founding  in  that  River. 
ByO.  Chanute,  Chief  Engineer,  and  George  Morri- 
son, Assistant  Engineer.  Illustrated  with  five  litho- 
graphic views  and  twelve  plates  of  plans.  4to,  cloth,   6  00 

8 


D.  V.v.T  NOSTRAXD'S  rUHLTCATlONS. 


MAC  CORD.  A  rracticci!  Treatise  on  the  Slide  Valve 
by  Kccentrlcs,  examining  by  methods  the  action  ot  the 
Eccentric  upon  tlie  t?Jide  Valve,  and  explaining  the 
t'racticil  ])roces.ses  of  laying  out  the  movements, 
adapting  the  valve  for  its  various  duties  in  the  steam 
engine.  For  the  use  of  Kngineers,  Draughtsmen, 
Machinists,  and  Students  of  Valve  Motions  in  gene 
ra  .  Hv  C  W.  Mac  Tord,  A.  M. ,  Professor  of  Me- 
chanical Drawing,  Stevens'  Institute  of  Technology, 
Hoboken,  N.  J.  Illustrated  by  8  full  page  copper- 
plates.   4to.  cloth   $400- 

K  IRK  WOOD.  Report  on  the  Filtration  of  River 
^^aters,  for  the  supply  of  cities,  as  practised  in 
Europe,  made  to  the  Uoard  of  Water  Connnissioners 
of  the  City  of  St.  Louis.  V>y  James  P.  Kirkwood. 
Illustrated  by  30  double  plate  engravings.   4to,  cloth,  15  00 

PLATTNER.  Manual  of  Qualitative  and  Quantitative 
Analysis  with  the  Blow  1  ipe.  From  the  last  Germjin 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  By  Prof  Th.  Kichter. 
of  the  Royal  Saxon  Mining  Academy.  Translated 
by  Prof  H.  P>.  C  ornwall,  Assistant  in  the  Columbia 
>chool  of  urines,  New  York  assisted  by  John  H. 
Caswell.  Illustrated  wiih  87  wood  cuts,  and  one 
lithographic  plate.  Second  edition,  revised,  560 
pages,  8vo,  cloth  ,    7  50 

PLYMPTON.  The  Blow  Pipe.  A  system  of  Instruc- 
tion in  its  practical  use  being  a  graduated  course  of 
analysis  for  the  use  of  students,  and  all  those  engaged 
ni  the  examination  of  metallic  combinations  Second 
edition,  wiih  an  appendix  and  a  copious  index  By 
Prof.  Geo  W .  Plympton,  of  the  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, Brooklyn,  N.  Y.    1  ^mo,  cloth   2  00 

PYNCHON.  Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics,  design- 
ed for  the  use  of  Academie.s  Colleges  and  High 
Schools.  Illustrated  with  numerous  entcravings, and 
containing  copious  experiments  with  directions  for 
preparing  them.  By  "Ihomas  Ruggles  1  ynchon, 
M.  A.,  ProfessoBof  ('hemistry  and  the  Natural  Sci- 
ences, Trinity  <  oUege,  Hartford  New  edition,  re- 
vised andenlaro^ed  and  illustrated  by  269  illustrations 
on  wood.    Crown,  8vo.  cloth   3  00 

9 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


ELIOT  AND  STORER.  A  compendious  Manual  of 
Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  By  Charles  W. 
Eliot  and  Frank  H.  Storer.  Revised  with  the  Co- 
operation of  the  authors.  By  William  R.  Nichols, 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology     Illustrated,  lamo,  cloth   $i  50 

RAM  ME  LS  BERG.  Guide  to  a  course  of  Quantitative 
Chemical  Analysis,  especially  of  Minerals  and  Fur- 
nace Products.  Illustrated  by  F^xamples  By  C.  F. 
Ramn?  alsberg.  Translated  by  J.  Towler,  M.  D. 
8vo,  cloth   2  25 

EGLESTON.  Lectures  on  Descriptive  Mineralogy,  de- 
livered at  the  School  of  Mines.  Columbia  College. 
By  Professor  T.  Egleston,  Illustrated  by  34  Litho- 
graphic Plates.    8vo,  cloth   4  50 

MITCHELL.  A  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying.  By 
John  Mitchell.  Third  edition.  Edited  by  William 
Crookes,  F.  R.  S.    8vo,  cloth. . .    10  00 

WATT'S  Dictionary  of  Chemistry.  New  and  Revised 
edition  complete  in  6  vols  8vo  cloth,  $62.00  Sup- 
plementary volume  sold  separatel3^    Price,  cloth. . .    9  00 

RANDALL.  Quartz  Operators  Hand- Book.  By  P.  M. 
Randall.  New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  fully 
illustrated.    i2mo,  cloth    200 

SILVERSMITH.  A  Practical  Hand-Book  for  Miners, 
Metallurgists,  and  Assayers,  comprising  the  most  re- 
cent improvements  in  the  disintegration  amalgama- 
tion, smelting,  and  parting  of  the  i  recious  ores,  with 
a  comprehensive  Digest  of  the  Mining  Laws.  Greatly 
augmented,  revised  and  corrected.  By  Julius  Silver- 
smith. Fourth  edition.  Profusely  illustrated.  i2mo, 
cloth   3  cf 

THE  USEFUL  METALS  AND  THEIR  ALLOYS, 
including  Mining  Ventilation,  Mining  Jurisprudence, 
and  Metallurgic  Chemistry  employed  in  the  conver- 
sion of  Iron,  Copper,  Tin,  Zinc,  Antimony  and  Lead 
ores,  with  their  applications  to  the  Industrial  Arts. 
By  ScofFren.  Truan,  Clay,  Oxland,  Fairbairn,  and 

•thers.    Fifth  edition,  half  calf   3  75 

10 


D.  VAN  NOSTUAND  S  PUBLICATIONS. 


JOYNSON.  The  Metals  used  in  construction,  Iron, 
Steel,  Bessemer  Metal,  etc.,  etc.  By  F.  H.  Joynson, 
Illustrated,  i2mo,  clotii   $o  75 

VON  COTTA.  Treatise  on  Ore  Deposits.  By  Bern- 
hard  Von  Cotta,  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Royal 
School  of  Mmes,  Freidberg,  Saxony.  Translated 
from  the  second  German  edition,  by  Frederick 
Frime,  Jr.,  AJining  Engineer,  and  revised  by  the  au- 
thor, with  numerous  illustrations.    8vo,  cloth.   4  00 

URE  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures  and  Mines  By 
Andrew  Ure,  M.D  Sixth  edition,  edited  by  Robert 
Hunt,  F.  R.  S  ,  greatly  enlarged  and  re-written. 
London,  1872.  3  vols  Svo,  cloth,  $25.00.  Half 
Russia   37  50 

BELL.  Chemical  Phenomena  of  Iron  Smelting.  An 
experimental  and  practical  examination  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which  determine  the  capacity  of  the  Blast 
Furnace,  The  Temperature  of  the  air,  and  the 
proper  condition  of  the  Materials  to  be  operated 
upon.    By  1.  Lowthian  Bell.    Svo,  cloth   6  00 

ROGERS.  The  Geology  of  Pennsylvania.  A  Govern- 
ment survey,  with  a  general  view  of  the  Geology  of 
the  United  States,  Essays  on  the  Coal  Formation  and 
its  Fossils,  ai  d  a  description  of  the  Coal  Fields  of 
North  America  and  Great  Britain.  By  Henry  Dar- 
win Rogers,  late  State  Geologist  of  Pennsvivania, 
Splendidly  illustrated  with  Plates  and  Lngravmgs  in 
the  text.    3  vols,  4to,  cloth  with  Portfolio  of  Maps.  30  00 

BURGH.  Modern  Marine  Engineering,  appHed  to 
Paddle  and  Screw  Propulsion.  Consisting  of  36 
:olored  plates,  259  Practical  Wood  '  ut  Illustrations, 
and  403  pages  ot  descriptive  matter,  the  whole  being 
an  exposition  of  the  present  practice  of  James 
Watt  &  Co.,  J.  &  G  Rennie,  R.  Napier  &  Sons, 
and  other  celebrated  firms,  by  N.  P.  Burgh,  Engi- 
neer, thick  4to,  vol.,  cloth,  ^25.00  ;  half  mor   30  00 

BARTOL.  Treatise  on  the  Marine  Hollers  of  the  United 

States.    By  B.  H.  Bartol.    Illustrated,  Svo,  cloth. . .  150 
II 


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BOCJRNE.  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine  in  its  various  v 
applications  to  Mines,  Mills,  Steam  Navigations 
Railways,  and  Agriculture,  with  the  theoretical  in- 
vestigations respecting  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat, 
and  the  proper  proportions  of  steam  engines.  Elabo- 
rate tables  of  the  right  dimensions  of  every  part,  and 
Practical  Instructions  for  the  manufacture  and  man- 
agement of  every  species  of  Engine  in  actual  use. 
By  John  Bourne,  being  the  ninth  edition  of  "  A 
Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  by  the  "  Artlzan 
Club."  Illustrated  by  38  plates  and  546  wood  cuts. 
4to,  cloth  $15  00 

STUART.  The  Naval  Dry  Docks  of  the  United 
Siates.  By  Charles  B.  Stuart  late  Engineer-in-Chief 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Illustrated  with  24  engravings 
on  steel.    Fourth  edition,  cloth   6  00 

EADS.    System  of  Naval  Defences.     By  James  B. 

Eads,  C.  E.,  with  10  illustrations,  4to,  cloth   5  00 

FOSTEP^.  Submarine  Blasting  in  Boston  Harbor, 
Massachusetts.  Removal  of  Tower  and  Corwin 
Rocks.  By  J.  G.  Foster,  Lieut. -Col.  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  Army.  Illustrated  with  seven  plates,  4to, 
cloth   3  50 

BARNES  Submarine  Warfare,  offensive  and  defensive, 
including  a  discussion  of  the  offensive  Torpedo  Sys- 
tem, its  effects  upon  Iron  Clad  Ship  Systems  and  in- 
fluence upon  future  naval  wars.  By  Lieut. -Com- 
mander J.  S.  Barnes,  U.  S.  with  twenty  litho- 
graphic plates  and  many  wood  cuts.    8vo,  cloth.. .  .    5  00 

HOLLEY.  A  Treatise  on  Ordnance  and  Armor,  em- 
bracing descriptions,  discussions,  and  professional 
opinions  concerning  the  materials,  fabrication,  re- 
quirements, capabilities,  and  endurance  or  European 
and  American  Guns,  for  Naval,  Sea  Coast,  and  Iron 
Clad  Warfare,  and  their  Rifling,  Projectiles,  and 
Breech- Loading  ;  also,  results  of  experiments  against 
armor,  from  official  records,  with  an  appendix  refer- 
ring to  Gun  Cotton,  Hooped  Guns,  etc.,  etc  By 
Alexander  L.  HoUey,  B.  P.,  948  pages,  493  engrav- 
ings, and  147  Tables  of  Results,  etc.,  8vo,  half  roan.  10  00 
12 


I).  VAN  NOSTKAND's  rUBIilCATIONS. 


SnniS.  A  Treatise  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Levelling,  siiowing  its  application  to  purposes  of 
Railway  Engineering  and  the  Construction  of  Roads, 
.  &c.  iiy  Frederick  W.  Simms,  C.  E.  From  the  5th 
London  edition,  revised  and  corrected,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Mr.  Laws's  Practical  Examples  for  setting 
out  Railway  Curves.  Illustrated  with  three  Litho- 
graphic plates  and  numerous  wood  cuts.  8vo,  cloth.  $2  50 
BURT.  Key  to  the  Solar  Compass,  and  Surveyor's 
Companion  ;  comprising  all  the  rules  necessary  for 
use  in  the  field;  also  description  of  the  Linear  Sur- 
reys and  Public  Land  System  of  the  United  States, 
Notes  on  the  Barometer,  suggestions  for  an  outfit  for 
a  survey  of  four  months,  etc  By  W.  A.  Hurt,  U.  S. 
Deputy  Surveyor.    Second  edition.     Pocket  book 


form,  tuck   2  50 

THE  PLANE  TABLE.  Its  uses  in  Topographical 
Surveying,  from  the  Papers  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Sur- 
vey.   Illustrated,  8vo,  cloth   2  ©o 


•  This  worK  jjives  a  description  of  the  Plane  Table,  employed  at  tlie 
U.  S.  Coast  ^rvey  office,  ;iQd  tlic  mauner  of  using  it." 

JEFFER'S.  Nautical  Surveying.  By  W.  N.  Jeffers, 
Captain  U.  S.  Navy.  Illustrated  with  9  copperplates 
and  31  wood  cut  iWustrations.    8vo,  cloth   5  00 

CHAUVENET.  New  method  of  correcting  Lunar  Dis- 
tances, and  improved  method  of  Finding  the  error 
and  rate  of  a  chronometer,  by  equal  altitudes.  By 
W.  Chauvenet,  LL  D.    Svo,  cloth   2  00 

BRUNNOW.  Spherical  Astronomy.  By  F.  Brunnow, 
^*h.  Dr.  Translated  by  the  author  from  the  second 
German  edition.     Svo,  cloth   6  50 

PEIRCE.  System  of  Analytic  Mechanics.  By  Ben- 
jamin Peirce.    4to,  cloth   10  00 

COFFIN.  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy.  Pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.  By 
Prof.  J.  H.  C.  Coffin.  Fifth  edition.  52  wood  cut  iJlus- 
trations.    i2mo,  cloth  ,   3  50 

13 


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CLARK.  Theoretical  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astron- 
omy. ]^y  Lieut.  Lewis  Clark,  U.  S,  N.  Illustrated 
with  41  wood  cuts.     8vo,  cloth   $3  oc 

HASKINS.  The  Galvanometer  and  its  Uses.  A  Man- 
ual for  Electricians  and  Students,  By  C.  H.  Has- 
kins.    i2mo,  pocket  form,  morocco.    (In  press)  

GOUGE.  New  System  of  Ventilation,  which  has  been 
thoroughly  tested,  under  the  patronage  of  many  dis- 
tinguished persons.  By  Henry  A.  Gouge.  With 
many  illustrations.    8vo,  cloth   2  00 

BECKWri  H.  Observations  on  the  Materials  and 
Manufacture  of  Terra-Cotta,  Stone  Ware,  Fire  Brick, 
Porcelain  and  Encaustic  Tiles,  with  remarks  on  the 
products  exhibited  at  the  London  International  Exhi- 
bition, 187 1.  By  Arthur  Beckwith,  C.  E.  8vo, 
paper   60 

MORFIT.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Pure  Fertilizers,  and 
the  chemical  conversipn  of  Rock  Guano,  Marlstones, 
Coprolites.  and  the  Crude  Phosphates  of  Lime  and 
Alumina  generally,  into  various  valuable  products. 
By  Campbell  Morfit,  M.D.,  with  28  illustrative  plates, 
8vo,  cloth     20  00 

BARNARD.  The  Metric  System  of  Weights  and 
Measures.  An  address  delivered  before  the  convoca- 
tion of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  at 
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